A pressure suit is a protective suit worn by high-altitude pilots who may fly at altitudes where the air pressure is too low for an unprotected person to survive, even breathing pure oxygen at positive pressure. Such suits may be either full-pressure (i.e. spacesuit) or partial-pressure (as used by air crew). Partial-pressure suits work by providing mechanical counter-pressure to assist breathing at altitude.
//
Background
At altitudes greater than 20,000 feet, additional oxygen is required to support life, while at 34,000 feet, 100% oxygen is necessary in order to equal the partial pressure of oxygen in the sea level atmosphere. Above 40,000 feet, oxygen must be under positive pressure to maintain an equivalent altitude of 10,000 feet. At altitudes above 50,000 feet a pressurized suit is required, while at 55,000 feet, the ambient atmospheric pressure is so low that the body's water vapor expands until it boils off. Above the "Armstrong Limit" (approx. 63,000 feet), water - and hence blood[citation needed] - boils at the normal temperature of the human body, 37 °C (99 °F) and the same protective equipment is required as for vacuum conditions.
History
Russia
In Russia, the first full pressure suit was designed by engineer Evgeniy Chertanovskiy in Leningrad in 1931. The CH-1 was a simple pressure-tight suit with a helmet which did not have joints, thus requiring substantial force to move the arms and legs when pressurised. This was remedied in later suits. Work on full pressure suits was carried out during 1936-41 by the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI), with similar work being carried out by the Gromov Flight Research Institute (LII) after World War II. The LII produced four experimental full pressure suits for aircrews, and in 1959 began work on full pressure suits for spaceflight.[1] Chertanovskiy coined the name skafanders for full pressure suits from the Greek words skaf - boat,ship and andros - man; skafander has since become the term used by Russians to refer to standard diving dresses or space suits.
Haldane-Davis
In 1931, American Mark Ridge became obsessed with breaking the world altitude record in an open gondola balloon. Recognizing that the flight would require specialised protective clothing, he visited the UK in 1933 where he met with Scottish physiologist John Scott Haldane, who had published a concept for a fabric full pressure suit in the 1920s. The two sought the assistance of Robert Henry Davis of Siebe Gorman, the inventor of the Davis Escape Set, and with Haldane's and Davis' resources a prototype suit was constructed. Ridge tested it in a low-pressure chamber to a simulated altitude of 50,000 feet. However, he received no support for further work and never made his attempt on the world record. On 28 September 1936 Squadron Leader F.R.D. Swain of the Royal Air Force set the official world altitude record at 49,967 feet in a Bristol Type 138 wearing a similar suit.[2]
Wiley Post
In 1934, aviator Wiley Post, working with Russell S. Colley of the B.F. Goodrich Company, produced the world's first practical pressure suit. The suit's body had three layers: long underwear, a rubber air pressure bladder, and an outer suit of rubberised parachute fabric which was attached to a frame with arm and leg joints that allowed Post to operate aircraft controls and to walk to and from the aircraft. Attached to the frame were pigskin gloves, rubber boots, and an aluminium and plastic helmet with a removable faceplate that could accommodate earphones and a throat microphone. In the first flight using the suit on September 5, 1934, Post reached an altitude of 40,000 feet above Chicago, and in later flights reached 50,000 feet.
World War II
In the US, a large amount of effort was put into the development of pressure suits during World War II. While B.F. Goodrich led the field, other companies involved in such research included the Arrowhead Rubber Co., Goodyear, and US Rubber. The University of Minnesota worked with Bell Aircraft and the US National Bureau of Standards. The Bureau of Standards and the University of California acted as clearing houses to distribute information to all the companies involved. No effective fully mobile pressure suits were produced in World War II but the effort provided a valuable basis for later development.[2]
Joe Walker in an early Air Force partial pressure suit
David Clark Company
Following the war, the Cold War caused continued funding of aviation development, which included high altitude, high speed research such as NACA's X-1. James Henry of the University of Southern California devised a partial pressure suit using a gas mask to provide pressurised oxygen, with gas pressure also inflating rubber tubes called capstans to tighten the suit and provide sufficient mechanical counterpressure to just balance the breathing pressure necessary to prevent hypoxia at a particular altitude. The David Clark Company supplied technical support and resources, and a prototype suit was tested to a simulated 90,000 feet at Wright Field in 1946. Henry's design was subsequently developed by the David Clark Company into the S-1 and T-1 flight suit used by X-1 pilots. The X-1 was succeeded by the Douglas Skyrocket, whose objective was to exceed Mach 2, and an improved pressure suit was required. David Clark won the contract in 1951 with their first full pressure suit, the Model 4 Full Pressure Suit; it was first flown in 1953 by USMC aviator Marion E. Carl who became the first US military aviator to wear a full pressure suit, at the same time setting an unofficial worlds altitude record in the Skyrocket.
Astronaut Gordon Cooper in helmet and pressure suit
Goodrich Mk III & IV
US requirements for high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft such as the U-2, and fighters to intercept high-altitude Soviet aircraft caused the US Navy to be tasked with the development of a full pressure suit in the 1950s. Working with B.F. Goodrich and Arrowhead Rubber, the USN produced a series of designs which culminated in the Goodrich Mk III and IV. While intended for aircraft use, the Mk IV was later used by NASA with minor modifications for Project Mercury as the Navy Mark V. At the same time, David Clark won the contract to produce suits for the X-15 project; its XMC-2 suits qualified as the first US spacesuits.[3]
RAF
The RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine and the Royal Aircraft Establishment developed a partial-pressure helmet which was used with a capstan type suit purchased from the US. It was worn by Walter Gibb and his navigator to set a world altitude record on 29 August 1955 in an English Electric Canberra. However, evaluation of the suit showed that it encumbered the wearer and did not integrate well with RAF escape systems. Instead, the RAF IAM proposed a minimal-coverage suit which would provide "get-me-down" protection. The RAF never issued a partial-pressure suit, preferring instead to use anti-g trousers in conjunction with pressure jerkins (which applied mechanical counter-pressure to the wearer's chest).
ACES
The Advanced Crew Escape Suit (ACES), which was first used by USAF pilots in the mid-1970s, replaced the similar David Clark Model 1030 full pressure suits worn by SR-71 pilots, and was identical to the XMC-2 suits worn by X-15 pilots and Gemini astronauts. Modified versions of the suit were adopted by NASA for early Space Shuttle use, the modifications consisting of attachments for a parachute harness, and inflatable bladders in the legs to prevent the crew from passing out during reentry.
NOTE:
2008年9月25日星期四
G-suit
A g-suit is worn by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('g'). It is designed to prevent a black-out and g-LOC (g-induced Loss Of Consciousness), due to the blood pooling in the lower part of the body when under g, thus depriving the brain of blood.
//
Operation
A g-suit does not so much increase the g-threshold, but makes it possible to sustain high g longer without excessive physical fatigue. The resting g-tolerance of a typical person is anywhere from 3-5 g's depending on the person. A g-suit will typically add 1 g of tolerance to that limit. Pilots still need to practice the 'g-straining maneuver' that consists of tensing the abdominal muscles in order to tighten blood vessels so as to reduce blood pooling in the lower body. High g is not comfortable, even with a g-suit. In older fighter aircraft, 6 g was considered high, but with modern fighters 9 or even 10 g can be sustained aerodynamically[citation needed] making the pilot the critical factor in maintaining high maneuverability in close combat.
Design
A 'g Suit' is a special garment and generally takes the form of tightly-fitting trousers, which fit either under or over (depending on the design) the flying suit worn by the aviator or astronaut. The trousers are fitted with inflatable bladders which, when pressurized through a g-sensitive valve in the aircraft or spacecraft, press firmly on the abdomen and legs, thus restricting the draining of blood away from the brain during periods of high acceleration. In addition, in some modern very high-g aircraft, the Anti-g suit effect is augmented by a small amount of pressure applied to the lungs (partial pressure breathing), which also enhances resistance to high g. The effects of Anti-g suits and partial pressure breathing are straightforward to replicate in a simulator, although the continuous g forces themselves can only be produced artificially in devices such as centrifuges.
Various designs of g-suit have been developed. They first used water-filled bladders around the lower body and legs. Later designs used air under pressure to inflate the bladders. These g-suits were lighter than the fluid-filled versions and are still in extensive use. However, the Swiss company Life Support Systems AG and the German Autoflug GmbH collaborated to design the new Libelle suit for use with the Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft, which reverts to liquid as the medium and improves on performance. The Libelle suit is under consideration for adoption by the United States Air Force. [1]
If blood is allowed to pool in the lower areas of the body, the brain will be deprived of blood leading to temporary hypoxia. Hypoxia causes first a brownout (a dimming of the vision), also called grey-out, followed by tunnel-vision and ultimately a blackout (unconsciousness), that is g-induced Loss of Consciousness or 'g-LOC'. The danger of g-LOC to aircraft pilots is magnified because on relaxation of g there is a period of disorientation before full sensation is re-gained.
Need for training
G-force induced hypoxia has resulted in a number of fatalities in which the aircraft and crew are lost.[2] There is a need for high-g training and this can be accomplished in a man-rated centrifuge training system. Such systems are made by AMST Systemtechnik in Austria (Austria Metall SystemTechnik), the Environmental Tectonics Corporation (ETC) and in the USA.
History
As early as 1917, there were documented cases of loss of consciousness due to g-forces in pilots.[citation needed]
In 1931 a Professor of Physiology, Frank Cotton[who?], from the University of Sydney described a new way of determining the center of gravity of the human body. This made it possible to describe the displacement of mass within the body under acceleration.
With the development of high-speed monoplane fighters in the late 1930s, g-effects in combat became more critical.[citation needed] In the Battle of Britain in 1940, some German aircraft had foot-rests above the rudder pedals so that the pilot's feet and legs could be raised during combat, in which large use of the rudder was often not necessary but turning inside the opponent, was.
The Franks g-Suit
The first g-suit was developed by a team led by Wilbur R. Franks at the University of Toronto's Banting and Best Institute in 1941. This used water filled bladders around the legs and two Marks were developed:
The Franks Mark I suit was for the RAF) and was for Hurricane and Spitfire pilots.
The Franks Mark II was for the USAF and RCAF). U.S. pilots tested it during 1944, but found the water system uncomfortable and were issued an air-inflatable design known as the Berger suit from September 1944.
Prone pilot positions
During the 1939-45 war the German Henschel Hs 132 jet and US XP-79 Flying Ram both had prone positions to minimize blood pooling in the legs.
After the 1939-45 war, the British experimented with prone flying positions on a highly modified Gloster Meteor F8 fighter.
However, other difficulties associated with prone piloting and the development of a practical g-suit for a normal seating position terminated the experiments.
Air-based g-suits were very common in NATO aircraft of all nations from the 1950s onwards and are still in common use today.
Later jets such as the BAe Hawk, F-16 Falcon, F-18 Hornet, Eurofighter Typhoon and the Dassault Rafale can sustain high-g for longer periods, and are therefore more physically demanding. However, by using a modern g-suit a pilot can now be expected to sustain flight forces of up to 9 g without blacking out.
Astronauts wear similar g-suits to aviators but face different challenges due to the effects of microgravity. Aviator g-suits apply uniform pressure to the lower legs to minimize the effects of high acceleration but research from the Canadian Space Agency[3] implies there might be a benefit in having a suit for astronauts that uses a "milking action" to increase blood flow to the upper body.
NOTE:
//
Operation
A g-suit does not so much increase the g-threshold, but makes it possible to sustain high g longer without excessive physical fatigue. The resting g-tolerance of a typical person is anywhere from 3-5 g's depending on the person. A g-suit will typically add 1 g of tolerance to that limit. Pilots still need to practice the 'g-straining maneuver' that consists of tensing the abdominal muscles in order to tighten blood vessels so as to reduce blood pooling in the lower body. High g is not comfortable, even with a g-suit. In older fighter aircraft, 6 g was considered high, but with modern fighters 9 or even 10 g can be sustained aerodynamically[citation needed] making the pilot the critical factor in maintaining high maneuverability in close combat.
Design
A 'g Suit' is a special garment and generally takes the form of tightly-fitting trousers, which fit either under or over (depending on the design) the flying suit worn by the aviator or astronaut. The trousers are fitted with inflatable bladders which, when pressurized through a g-sensitive valve in the aircraft or spacecraft, press firmly on the abdomen and legs, thus restricting the draining of blood away from the brain during periods of high acceleration. In addition, in some modern very high-g aircraft, the Anti-g suit effect is augmented by a small amount of pressure applied to the lungs (partial pressure breathing), which also enhances resistance to high g. The effects of Anti-g suits and partial pressure breathing are straightforward to replicate in a simulator, although the continuous g forces themselves can only be produced artificially in devices such as centrifuges.
Various designs of g-suit have been developed. They first used water-filled bladders around the lower body and legs. Later designs used air under pressure to inflate the bladders. These g-suits were lighter than the fluid-filled versions and are still in extensive use. However, the Swiss company Life Support Systems AG and the German Autoflug GmbH collaborated to design the new Libelle suit for use with the Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft, which reverts to liquid as the medium and improves on performance. The Libelle suit is under consideration for adoption by the United States Air Force. [1]
If blood is allowed to pool in the lower areas of the body, the brain will be deprived of blood leading to temporary hypoxia. Hypoxia causes first a brownout (a dimming of the vision), also called grey-out, followed by tunnel-vision and ultimately a blackout (unconsciousness), that is g-induced Loss of Consciousness or 'g-LOC'. The danger of g-LOC to aircraft pilots is magnified because on relaxation of g there is a period of disorientation before full sensation is re-gained.
Need for training
G-force induced hypoxia has resulted in a number of fatalities in which the aircraft and crew are lost.[2] There is a need for high-g training and this can be accomplished in a man-rated centrifuge training system. Such systems are made by AMST Systemtechnik in Austria (Austria Metall SystemTechnik), the Environmental Tectonics Corporation (ETC) and in the USA.
History
As early as 1917, there were documented cases of loss of consciousness due to g-forces in pilots.[citation needed]
In 1931 a Professor of Physiology, Frank Cotton[who?], from the University of Sydney described a new way of determining the center of gravity of the human body. This made it possible to describe the displacement of mass within the body under acceleration.
With the development of high-speed monoplane fighters in the late 1930s, g-effects in combat became more critical.[citation needed] In the Battle of Britain in 1940, some German aircraft had foot-rests above the rudder pedals so that the pilot's feet and legs could be raised during combat, in which large use of the rudder was often not necessary but turning inside the opponent, was.
The Franks g-Suit
The first g-suit was developed by a team led by Wilbur R. Franks at the University of Toronto's Banting and Best Institute in 1941. This used water filled bladders around the legs and two Marks were developed:
The Franks Mark I suit was for the RAF) and was for Hurricane and Spitfire pilots.
The Franks Mark II was for the USAF and RCAF). U.S. pilots tested it during 1944, but found the water system uncomfortable and were issued an air-inflatable design known as the Berger suit from September 1944.
Prone pilot positions
During the 1939-45 war the German Henschel Hs 132 jet and US XP-79 Flying Ram both had prone positions to minimize blood pooling in the legs.
After the 1939-45 war, the British experimented with prone flying positions on a highly modified Gloster Meteor F8 fighter.
However, other difficulties associated with prone piloting and the development of a practical g-suit for a normal seating position terminated the experiments.
Air-based g-suits were very common in NATO aircraft of all nations from the 1950s onwards and are still in common use today.
Later jets such as the BAe Hawk, F-16 Falcon, F-18 Hornet, Eurofighter Typhoon and the Dassault Rafale can sustain high-g for longer periods, and are therefore more physically demanding. However, by using a modern g-suit a pilot can now be expected to sustain flight forces of up to 9 g without blacking out.
Astronauts wear similar g-suits to aviators but face different challenges due to the effects of microgravity. Aviator g-suits apply uniform pressure to the lower legs to minimize the effects of high acceleration but research from the Canadian Space Agency[3] implies there might be a benefit in having a suit for astronauts that uses a "milking action" to increase blood flow to the upper body.
NOTE:
Fashionable Optical Eyeglasses
Uses of dry suits
Surface
Boating
Dry suits are often worn for boating, especially sailing, and on personal water craft in the winter months. The primary uses are for protection from spray, and in case of accidental short-term immersion in cold water if the user falls overboard. Dry suits only intended for temporary immersion protection are less rugged than diving dry suits. They are usually made of a breathable membrane material to let sweat permeate, keeping the wearer dry and comfortable all day. Membrane type surface dry suits only keep the user dry, and have little thermal insulating properties. Most users will wear a thin thermal undersuit, or street clothes, for warmth; but wearing ordinary fabrics can be dangerous if the suit leaks in cold water because they will lose all insulating properties.
Water sports
Kitesurfers wearing dry suits on Long Island in winter when the air and water temperatures are near 32 °F (0 °C).
Dry suits are used for windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, water skiing and other surface water sports where the user is frequently immersed in cold water. These suits are often made from very lightweight material for high flexibility. Membrane type suits are commonly used in the spring and fall with moderate water temperatures, but Neoprene and hybrid dry suits for surface sports are preferred in cold water. These provide greater thermal protection in the event of a leak. The ability to swim for self-rescue in these types of suits is important to water sports users that do not use a boat. A neoprene bottom also is less likely to allow trapped air to collect in the legs, causing the wearer to tend to float head down in the water.
Working
Crew members who must work on the decks of commercial ships wear a type of dry suit also known as an immersion survival work suit. Single engine aircraft ferry pilots flying between North America and Europe, and helicopter pilots that must fly over the open ocean, must wear a survival suit in the cockpit, so they can continue to fly the aircraft, then exit immediately if the aircraft is ditched in cold water after an engine failure. These suits are also used on shore when working on docks, bridges, or other areas where cold water immersion is a safety risk. They are usually a three-part system consisting of:
A warm undersuit made of synthetic fabric designed to wick moisture from sweat generated by physical exertion away from the user’s skin.
A dry suit made with a waterproof breathable membrane to let moisture permeate out of the suit.
A durable outer shell, designed to protect the dry suit, and to carry tools and survival gear. The outer shell may also be equipped with an inflatable bladder to give the wearer additional flotation and freeboard when immersed.
Survival
Immersion survival suits are dry suits carried for use by ship and aircraft crew who will be immersed in cold water if the craft must be abandoned. Unlike immersion survival work suits, these are not intended to be worn all the time, and are only to be used in an emergency. Survival suits will typically be a one-piece design made of fire-retardant neoprene, and optimized with quick donning features.
Rescue
Dry suits are also worn by rescue personnel who must enter, or may accidentally enter, cold water. Features of dry suits designed for rescue may be a hybrid of the immersion survival and work suits, since the wearer is not expected to be working in the suit for an extended time. They may also be optimized for a specific task such as ice rescue, or helicopter rescue swimmer.
Underwater
Sport diving
Drysuits for sport diving are made in both membrane and neoprene, and primarily differ from surface drysuits in that they have inflation and deflation air valves to maintain neutral buoyancy, and are slightly more durable.
Commercial/military diving
Drysuits for commercial and military diving tend to be much heavier and even more durable than sport drysuits because they will endure a harsh and abrasive environment, especially if being used for heavy labor work such as underwater welding. Some commercial drysuits are rated for hazardous-environment diving, and when combined with a full-face helmet can completely isolate and protect the diver from hazardous environments such as sewage pits and chemical storage tanks.[9]
Drysuit donning and diving hazards
Drysuit donning is usually more difficult than with a wetsuit and often requires the assistance of another diver or person. Drysuits pose their own unique problems compared to wetsuit diving, due to the complex construction and since a diver needs to constantly manage and adjust the air volume inside the suit. During descent, air must be added to maintain constant volume. This prevents suit squeeze, loss of neutral buoyancy, and potential uncontrolled descent. During ascent, air must be removed to prevent ballooning, loss of neutral buoyancy, and potential uncontrolled ascent. A drysuit can be equipped with an automatic spring-loaded exhaust valve, which can assist with this problem.
Seal damage
Latex seals are easily pierced by sharp objects. Gripping the seal with long fingernails to pull it on or off can cut through the material, while long toenails can damage thin rubber booties when the foot is pushed inside tight-fitting fins.
Some types of latex seals may be liable to rubber perishing.
Latex seals are somewhat elastic, but can be easily torn if overstretched. Powdered talc can help the seals slide on easier.
Neoprene seals are often used. They are less waterthight than latex, but can be repaired easily by the user.
Zipper damage
Waterproof zipper installed on a membrane type dry suit
Waterproof zippers need the two rows of open teeth to be reasonably lined up in front of the pull, for the zipper to slide without excessive effort. (Because of their construction waterproof zippers require two or three times as much pull as regular zippers to close.) It is best to hold the opening together as the zipper is pulled shut to prevent misalignment that can permanently damage the sealing edge. For this reason zippers across the back of the shoulders or down the back of the suit are almost impossible for one person to close properly by themselves, and yanking harder to try and force the unreachable zipper closed often just results in misalignment and permanent zipper damage.
Suit damage
Damage to the lower part of the suit can cause a sudden inrush of very cold water for winter users, or an inrush of hazardous chemicals for commercial inspection divers.
Damage to the upper part of the suit can cause a sudden venting of the air, resulting in a total loss of thermal insulation in membrane suits and sudden uncontrolled descent, followed by water/chemicals seeping in.
Diving without a BCD
Since the drysuit can contain air, some divers control their buoyancy with the drysuit and dive without the usual BCD / buoyancy control vest that is commonly worn by wetsuit divers. Although it is possible to dive like this, the risks are higher than when using a buoyancy compensator, Drysuits generally are more easily damaged and prone to failure. Buoyancy compensators generally are more robust and reliable.
Inversion hazards
Underwater
If there is more air in the drysuit than is needed to counteract “squeeze” on the undersuit, that excess air creates a "bubble" which moves to the highest point of the suit, which in an upright wearer is the shoulders.
Drysuit wearers wearing loose baggy suits need to keep their legs at level or below their waist. When inverted, with the legs above the waist, the bubble quickly moves top the highest point, the legs.
If the suit is being used correctly, the bubble is small and its movement is not important. The bubble may be large if a diver has ascended without venting the suit or the diver is over-weighted and extra air has been put in the suit to make the diver neutrally buoyant. The movement of a large bubble can be a problem; it balloons the legs and it may inflate the thin rubber booties causing the fins to pop off, losing them in the water. Also, as the drysuit vents are most often situated at the top half of the diver, it is impossible to vent the suit while inverted. If the diver is positively buoyant, there is an increased risk of a fast ascent to the surface.
The size of the bubble can be minimised by being correctly weighted and venting the suit on ascent. Some divers ensure that the bubble remains at the top of their body by using the buoyancy compensator to counteract any excess weighting and keeping the minimum air, to avoid squeeze, in the suit.
For an inexperienced diver, ballooning of the legs can cause a loss of control that may to lead to panic and an inability to flip upright again. The recommended solution is for the wearer to bend at the knees, reach up and grab the legs, do a somersault to flip upright again and vent the suit if needed by opening the neck seal.
Surface
Surface drysuit users can face a similar inversion problem. The problem is more acute when not wearing a personal flotation device (life vest) over the drysuit. For surface drysuit users, the inversion situation can be much more critical if no one is nearby to assist, since the wearer may be held upside down and unable to breathe, and may also have water run down into their nose while inverted.
It is not a problem for close-fitting neoprene suits, or hybrid suits with neoprene bottoms, which prevent air from easily moving into the legs of the suit. Wearers of baggy surface drysuits can mitigate the problem by venting out as much excess air as possible before entering the water. This is typically done by crouching down and leaning forward, wrapping the arms around the knees, and then having an assistant zip the suit shut while it is stretched out tightly. Excess air can also be "burped" out of the neck seal. Some baggy suits have elastic "gaiters" that can be pulled snug around the legs to help prevent this inversion event from happening.
NOTE:
Boating
Dry suits are often worn for boating, especially sailing, and on personal water craft in the winter months. The primary uses are for protection from spray, and in case of accidental short-term immersion in cold water if the user falls overboard. Dry suits only intended for temporary immersion protection are less rugged than diving dry suits. They are usually made of a breathable membrane material to let sweat permeate, keeping the wearer dry and comfortable all day. Membrane type surface dry suits only keep the user dry, and have little thermal insulating properties. Most users will wear a thin thermal undersuit, or street clothes, for warmth; but wearing ordinary fabrics can be dangerous if the suit leaks in cold water because they will lose all insulating properties.
Water sports
Kitesurfers wearing dry suits on Long Island in winter when the air and water temperatures are near 32 °F (0 °C).
Dry suits are used for windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, water skiing and other surface water sports where the user is frequently immersed in cold water. These suits are often made from very lightweight material for high flexibility. Membrane type suits are commonly used in the spring and fall with moderate water temperatures, but Neoprene and hybrid dry suits for surface sports are preferred in cold water. These provide greater thermal protection in the event of a leak. The ability to swim for self-rescue in these types of suits is important to water sports users that do not use a boat. A neoprene bottom also is less likely to allow trapped air to collect in the legs, causing the wearer to tend to float head down in the water.
Working
Crew members who must work on the decks of commercial ships wear a type of dry suit also known as an immersion survival work suit. Single engine aircraft ferry pilots flying between North America and Europe, and helicopter pilots that must fly over the open ocean, must wear a survival suit in the cockpit, so they can continue to fly the aircraft, then exit immediately if the aircraft is ditched in cold water after an engine failure. These suits are also used on shore when working on docks, bridges, or other areas where cold water immersion is a safety risk. They are usually a three-part system consisting of:
A warm undersuit made of synthetic fabric designed to wick moisture from sweat generated by physical exertion away from the user’s skin.
A dry suit made with a waterproof breathable membrane to let moisture permeate out of the suit.
A durable outer shell, designed to protect the dry suit, and to carry tools and survival gear. The outer shell may also be equipped with an inflatable bladder to give the wearer additional flotation and freeboard when immersed.
Survival
Immersion survival suits are dry suits carried for use by ship and aircraft crew who will be immersed in cold water if the craft must be abandoned. Unlike immersion survival work suits, these are not intended to be worn all the time, and are only to be used in an emergency. Survival suits will typically be a one-piece design made of fire-retardant neoprene, and optimized with quick donning features.
Rescue
Dry suits are also worn by rescue personnel who must enter, or may accidentally enter, cold water. Features of dry suits designed for rescue may be a hybrid of the immersion survival and work suits, since the wearer is not expected to be working in the suit for an extended time. They may also be optimized for a specific task such as ice rescue, or helicopter rescue swimmer.
Underwater
Sport diving
Drysuits for sport diving are made in both membrane and neoprene, and primarily differ from surface drysuits in that they have inflation and deflation air valves to maintain neutral buoyancy, and are slightly more durable.
Commercial/military diving
Drysuits for commercial and military diving tend to be much heavier and even more durable than sport drysuits because they will endure a harsh and abrasive environment, especially if being used for heavy labor work such as underwater welding. Some commercial drysuits are rated for hazardous-environment diving, and when combined with a full-face helmet can completely isolate and protect the diver from hazardous environments such as sewage pits and chemical storage tanks.[9]
Drysuit donning and diving hazards
Drysuit donning is usually more difficult than with a wetsuit and often requires the assistance of another diver or person. Drysuits pose their own unique problems compared to wetsuit diving, due to the complex construction and since a diver needs to constantly manage and adjust the air volume inside the suit. During descent, air must be added to maintain constant volume. This prevents suit squeeze, loss of neutral buoyancy, and potential uncontrolled descent. During ascent, air must be removed to prevent ballooning, loss of neutral buoyancy, and potential uncontrolled ascent. A drysuit can be equipped with an automatic spring-loaded exhaust valve, which can assist with this problem.
Seal damage
Latex seals are easily pierced by sharp objects. Gripping the seal with long fingernails to pull it on or off can cut through the material, while long toenails can damage thin rubber booties when the foot is pushed inside tight-fitting fins.
Some types of latex seals may be liable to rubber perishing.
Latex seals are somewhat elastic, but can be easily torn if overstretched. Powdered talc can help the seals slide on easier.
Neoprene seals are often used. They are less waterthight than latex, but can be repaired easily by the user.
Zipper damage
Waterproof zipper installed on a membrane type dry suit
Waterproof zippers need the two rows of open teeth to be reasonably lined up in front of the pull, for the zipper to slide without excessive effort. (Because of their construction waterproof zippers require two or three times as much pull as regular zippers to close.) It is best to hold the opening together as the zipper is pulled shut to prevent misalignment that can permanently damage the sealing edge. For this reason zippers across the back of the shoulders or down the back of the suit are almost impossible for one person to close properly by themselves, and yanking harder to try and force the unreachable zipper closed often just results in misalignment and permanent zipper damage.
Suit damage
Damage to the lower part of the suit can cause a sudden inrush of very cold water for winter users, or an inrush of hazardous chemicals for commercial inspection divers.
Damage to the upper part of the suit can cause a sudden venting of the air, resulting in a total loss of thermal insulation in membrane suits and sudden uncontrolled descent, followed by water/chemicals seeping in.
Diving without a BCD
Since the drysuit can contain air, some divers control their buoyancy with the drysuit and dive without the usual BCD / buoyancy control vest that is commonly worn by wetsuit divers. Although it is possible to dive like this, the risks are higher than when using a buoyancy compensator, Drysuits generally are more easily damaged and prone to failure. Buoyancy compensators generally are more robust and reliable.
Inversion hazards
Underwater
If there is more air in the drysuit than is needed to counteract “squeeze” on the undersuit, that excess air creates a "bubble" which moves to the highest point of the suit, which in an upright wearer is the shoulders.
Drysuit wearers wearing loose baggy suits need to keep their legs at level or below their waist. When inverted, with the legs above the waist, the bubble quickly moves top the highest point, the legs.
If the suit is being used correctly, the bubble is small and its movement is not important. The bubble may be large if a diver has ascended without venting the suit or the diver is over-weighted and extra air has been put in the suit to make the diver neutrally buoyant. The movement of a large bubble can be a problem; it balloons the legs and it may inflate the thin rubber booties causing the fins to pop off, losing them in the water. Also, as the drysuit vents are most often situated at the top half of the diver, it is impossible to vent the suit while inverted. If the diver is positively buoyant, there is an increased risk of a fast ascent to the surface.
The size of the bubble can be minimised by being correctly weighted and venting the suit on ascent. Some divers ensure that the bubble remains at the top of their body by using the buoyancy compensator to counteract any excess weighting and keeping the minimum air, to avoid squeeze, in the suit.
For an inexperienced diver, ballooning of the legs can cause a loss of control that may to lead to panic and an inability to flip upright again. The recommended solution is for the wearer to bend at the knees, reach up and grab the legs, do a somersault to flip upright again and vent the suit if needed by opening the neck seal.
Surface
Surface drysuit users can face a similar inversion problem. The problem is more acute when not wearing a personal flotation device (life vest) over the drysuit. For surface drysuit users, the inversion situation can be much more critical if no one is nearby to assist, since the wearer may be held upside down and unable to breathe, and may also have water run down into their nose while inverted.
It is not a problem for close-fitting neoprene suits, or hybrid suits with neoprene bottoms, which prevent air from easily moving into the legs of the suit. Wearers of baggy surface drysuits can mitigate the problem by venting out as much excess air as possible before entering the water. This is typically done by crouching down and leaning forward, wrapping the arms around the knees, and then having an assistant zip the suit shut while it is stretched out tightly. Excess air can also be "burped" out of the neck seal. Some baggy suits have elastic "gaiters" that can be pulled snug around the legs to help prevent this inversion event from happening.
NOTE:
Dry suit
A dry suit or drysuit provides thermal insulation or passive thermal protection to the wearer while immersed in water[1][2][3][4], and is worn by divers, boaters, water sports enthusiasts, and others who work or play in or near cold water. The drysuit protects the whole human body, except the head, hands, and possibly the feet. Drysuits are used typically in these cases:
where the water temperature is below 15°C (60°F).
for extended immersion in water above 15°C (60°F), where discomfort would be experienced by a wetsuit user.
with an integral helmet, boots, and gloves for personal protection when working in and around hazardous liquids.
The main difference between drysuits and wetsuits is that drysuits are designed to prevent water entering. This generally allows better insulation in drysuits making them more suitable for use in cold water. Drysuits can be uncomfortably hot in warm or hot air. They are generally more expensive than wetsuits.
The neck seal, the zip, the inflator, a wrist seal, and the manual vent of a neoprene drysuit
Low pressure air hose for the drysuit, CEJN type
//
Parts of a dry suit
Needed
Shell
The main part of the drysuit is a waterproof shell made from a membrane type material: neoprene, foam rubber, or a hybrid of both.
[edit] Membrane
Membrane drysuits are made from thin materials, and thus by themselves have little thermal insulation. They are commonly made of vulcanized rubber, or laminated layers of nylon and butyl rubber. Membrane drysuits typically do not stretch, so they need to be made oversized and baggy to allow flexibility at the joints through the wearer's range of motion. This makes membrane drysuits easy to put on and get off, provides a great range of motion for the wearer, and makes them comfortable to wear for long periods, as the wearer does not have to pull against rubber elasticity.
To stay warm in a membrane suit, the wearer must wear an insulating undersuit, today typically made with polyester or other synthetic fiber batting. Polyester and other synthetics are preferred over natural materials, since synthetic materials have better insulating properties when damp or wet from sweat, seepage, or a leak.
Reasonable care must be taken not to hole or tear membrane drysuits, because buoyancy and insulation depend completely on the gas pockets in the undersuit. The drysuit material offers essentially no buoyancy or insulation itself, so if the drysuit leaks or is torn, water can soak the undersuit, with a corresponding loss of buoyancy and insulation.
In warmer waters, some wearers wear specially designed membrane drysuits without an undersuit. These are different in design, materials, and construction from drysuits made for cold water diving.
Membrane drysuits may also be made of a waterproof and breathable material to enable comfortable wear when out of the water for long periods of time. Sailors and boaters who intend to stay out of the water prefer this type of suit.
Neoprene
Neoprene is a closed cell foam synthetic rubber, containing millions of tiny air bubbles, forming a buoyant and thermally insulating material. If torn or punctured, a neoprene suit still keeps the insulation and buoyancy of the neoprene's bubbles when flooded. Being made of a fairly rigid dense material, they are not as easy to get on and off as membrane drysuits, and their buoyancy and thermal protection decreases with depth as the air bubbles in the neoprene are compressed, like with wetsuits. Neoprene also tends to shrink over the years as it outgases and slowly becomes more rigid. An alternative is crushed or rolled neoprene, which is less susceptible to volume changes when under pressure and shrinks less. With neoprene suits thermal under suits are usually worn, however, less insulation is needed thus reducing the amount of weight needed to counteract its buoyancy than a membrane suit which uses a thicker undersuit.
Hybrid
Hybrid suits combine the features of both types, with a membrane top attached to a neoprene bottom near the waist. The neoprene part is usually configured as a sleeveless "farmer-john" that covers the torso as well. This style is often used for surface water sports, especially in very cold water. The tight fitting lower part lets the wearer kick while swimming, and the loose fitting top allows easy arm movement. The torso covering also provides additional self-rescue or survival time if the suit leaks.
Seals
Seals at the wrists and neck prevent water entering the suit by compressing in a ring like a rubber band around the wrists and neck. The seals are not absolutely watertight, however, and the wearer may experience some seepage during use. The wearer will also get damp due to sweat and condensation. The seals are made from latex rubber or neoprene. Latex seals are supple but easily damaged and deteriorate with exposure to oils, oxygen, and other materials, so they must be replaced periodically, every two years or more. Neoprene seals last longer, but, being stiffer, let more water enter because they do not seal as effectively as latex seals to the contours of wrist and neck skin. They are also typically glued and sewn together to form a ring, and may leak along that seam.
Waterproof entry
Shoulder (rear) entry zipper
Front entry zipper
Modern dry suits have a waterproof zipper for entry and exit which was originally developed by NASA to hold air inside astronaut space suits. The zipper is commonly installed across the back of the shoulders, but can also be found diagonally across the front of the torso, on the side, or straight down the middle of the front or back.
There are many zipper arrangements in use because the zipper is very rigid, and cannot stretch at all, which can make it difficult for a user to get into and out of the suit. The zipper opening is often quite small, since a large zipper makes the suit stiffer and more difficult to use. Some complex zipper arrangements that wrap around the neck or chest let the suit swing open with a flap or hinge point.
Dry suits may also be fitted with an extra waterproof zipper "fly" to let the user urinate when the suit is worn for long periods. Some snug-fitting suits may also use wrap-around expansion zippers that allow the suit to expand or contract to fit different size people.
Before waterproof zips were invented, other methods had to be devised, with the most common being a long rubber entry tunnel which would be flattened shut, then rolled together from the sides and finally folded and clamped with a metal clip. An early example was the Sladen suit, where the entry tunnel was at the umbilicus. The Louisiana-based drysuit company Aquala still makes a "historical" diving suit of that kind.
Another type was a rubber tunnel that protruded through a normal cloth zipper. The tunnel would be rolled shut and the zipper closed to hold the roll in place. At least one make of old-type British frogman's drysuit was one-piece with a wide neck hole for entry; the bottom of the hood and the edge of the suit's neck hole were held together by a large circular steel clamp around the neck; there was a watertight seal in the bottom of the hood. Two-piece drysuit designs in full length for year-round use and "shorty" styles for summer-season use were also common in the 1950s and early 1960s. Two-piece suits of the period include the American-made Spearfisherman frogman suit, US Divers Seal Suit and the So Lo Marx Skooba Totes suit, the Italian-made Pirelli suit and the UK-made Heinke Delta suit and Siebe-Heinke Dip suit. These suits were sealed at the waist by rolling together the excess material at the bottom of the shirt and the top of the pants. A cummerbund, rail, or surgical tubing was sometimes provided to make the seal more waterproof. A modern version of the two-piece drysuit is manufactured by Customworks of Idaho. Though lacking such features as valves and zippers, these suits still have certain advantages over their modern counterparts. For example, they are cheaper, less bulky, more easily repaired and the footed pants could also double as fishing waders.
Optional
Thermal undersuits
For cold-water use, especially diving under ice sheets, the user will usually wear a thick undersuit in a membrane dry suit. The thickness of undersuits varies and can be chosen by the wearer according the water temperature. Thinsulate is the preferred fabric for undersuits.[5][6] More recently, aerogel material is being added to conventional undergarments to increase the insulating properties of those garments.[7] Neoprene dry suits are made from a foam-rubber sheet containing tiny air bubbles, which provide insulation by themselves and generally eliminates the need for an undersuit. A neoprene wetsuit can also be worn under a membrane dry suit for extra protection against condensation and leaks.
Gloves, mitts, and 3-finger mitts
Drysuits may have wrist seals, permanently attached gloves/mitts, or a third option known as the attachment ring (described below).
If it is not important to have exposed bare hands[8], permanently attached heavy rubber gloves or mitts can help make getting in and out of the suit much easier since there is no need for the suit to tightly seal around the wrists. Instead, the wearer can slip into the attached gloves as if they were a loose-fitting coat sleeve.
Full-hand diving mitts can be sometimes useful in extreme environments such as ice diving.
Three-finger mitts are a midpoint between gloves and mittens. In the three-finger mitts, the fingers are arranged like the science-fiction Vulcan salute. This provides slightly better hand-grasping dexterity while still permitting heavy insulation around the hands.
Hoods
The drysuit may also have an integrated hood, which seals water out around the wearer's face, and helps keep the wearer's head warm. The integrated hood is often latex rubber that fits tightly around the head, but can also be made from neoprene or membrane to allow an insulating cap to be worn under the hood. Care must be taken to avoid the hood making a waterproof seal around either of the ears, as this would risk an eardrum bursting outwards at depth.
Separate (non integral) neoprene hoods for use with a dry suit are different from wetsuit hoods, because they cannot be tucked inside the suit at the collar, as this would compromise the neck seal; with these the wearer's head gets wet, which would be a risk when diving in contaminated water.
Helmets
When a diver needs to be underwater for long periods of time day after day, a snug-fitting elastic hood can cause uncomfortable pressure sores on the ears, face, and jaw. To alleviate this and to permit easy communication with the surface and between divers, a hard metal or plastic diving helmet may be worn with the drysuit. This can be separate from the drysuit with its own watertight neck seal, or it can be permanently attached with a neck ring, and air from the helmet can enter into the suit.
Boots
Most commercial diving dry suits have heavy built-in boots. Sport diving suits may have boots or thin sheet-rubber booties. Surface dry suits may have booties or ankle seals to allow better foot control of water skis and surfboards. Surface dry suits may be used with separate non-waterproof neoprene booties for foot warmth, and aqua-shoes for protection while using personal watercraft.
For a commercial environment where the option of interchangeable boots for different sizes of feet is desired, the legs of the dry suit can also be fitted with attachment rings (described below). Some commercial divers order their suits without boots and install rubber work boots such as those used by miners or [[Firefighterfirefighters].
Weight boots
For commercial drysuit divers who must work on the sea bottom or on an underwater platform (such as under an oil rig), the drysuit may be fitted with heavy metal boots to keep the diver firmly weighted down. This allows the suit to be comfortably inflated like a balloon as the diver works, without concern that the diver may float uncontrollably to the surface. These divers cannot swim freely, and may need to ride an underwater cable elevator down to the work area.
Attachment rings
Dry suits with latex seals; Top: quick-change seal (Viking ring); Bottom: standard glued seal.
These are typically only seen on professional and commercial diving suits. They allow separate neck seals, gloves, and boots to be joined to the suit with a watertight seal. The attachment ring system uses a support ring inside the suit and a clamping band outside the suit to tightly hold the suit and the separate hood/boot/glove together. They were also used with the neck seals of some old British frogman-type drysuits (see above).
The support ring can optionally be slipped into the sleeve of a regular drysuit that has wrist seals, to temporarily put watertight rubber gloves on the suit, or the wrist seals can be removed and the inner support ring is permanently attached inside the sleeve. The support ring may be a large one-piece unit that can be slipped over the head/hands/feet, or it may be split into halves that can be directly installed up close around the neck/wrists/ankles.
Attachment rings let a commercial diver change his suit to best perform the task at hand. Wrist seals can still be used with an attachment ring suit; they are mounted onto the ring like a pair of gloves.
Valves
A typical diving drysuit has an air exhaust valve, which lets the diver vent gas from the suit during the ascent. This is necessary because when the diver ascends, the air in the suit expands, balloons out the suit, and hinders movement. The air in a ballooned suit can overcome the diver's neutral buoyancy, and can cause a sudden uncontrolled ascent to the surface, resulting in decompression sickness and loss of consciousness.
Vent valves can be automatic, operating as pressure relief valves, or manual, where the diver must raise the valve to vent. Automatic vents are generally at the shoulder, and manual vents are at the wrist. Some older drysuits have no vents, but the diver must lift one of the wrist seals or the neck seal open to vent the drysuit. Surface dry suits are not inflated, and must be vented to remove most of the gas inside.
Because the air inside the suit is compressed as the diver descends, a modern diving drysuit also has a gas inflation valve, which lets the diver control the buoyancy of the suit by injecting gas from a diving cylinder to avoid the suit from being squeezed tightly and painfully onto the diver's body during descent. The sensation is similar to being pinched, but all over the body. Suit squeeze can also hinder the diver's movement and make swimming more difficult.
Some old-type frogman's drysuits had a small "jack cylinder" to be inflated from, or the frogman (who was using an oxygen rebreather and so limited to about 30 feet (9.144 m) depth) had to put up with the suit squeeze.
Normally, the gas used for dry suit inflation for diving is air from the primary breathing cylinder. When divers breathe helium-based gas mixes such as trimix, they often avoid inflating their suits with the helium-based gas due to its high thermal conductivity. They often carry a separate cylinder for this purpose; generally it contains air, although sometimes argon, which has lower thermal conductivity, is used. Pure argon cannot be used as a breathing gas. Alternatively, some trimix divers inflate their suits from a decompression cylinder containing a nitrox blend.
In surface dry suits, the wearer normally never dives deeply underwater, and is not concerned about neutral buoyancy, so there are no air valves on a surface drysuit.
The P-Valve
For commercial divers or technical divers who may spend many hours in a drysuit underwater, it is not practical to have to climb back onboard the ship in order to open a waterproof relief zipper and urinate. The P-valve is a urinal built into the suit, which lets a male diver relieve himself at any time without having to get out of the water, and keeping him dry and clean inside the suit.
Before putting on the drysuit, the diver puts on a condom catheter, which is similar to a condom except that it is made of thicker material with a cuff or adhesive ring to prevent it from slipping off, and its end connects to a built-on drain tube. After putting it on, he attaches the end of the tube to a drain hose in the crotch of the suit. This drain hose leads to a vent opening just above a knee, and may also have a one-way valve (P-valve)to prevent ocean water from flowing back in if the hose gets disconnected.
Divers intending to urinate in drysuits sometimes wear an adult diaper / nappy, which soaks up and retains the urine.
NOTE:
where the water temperature is below 15°C (60°F).
for extended immersion in water above 15°C (60°F), where discomfort would be experienced by a wetsuit user.
with an integral helmet, boots, and gloves for personal protection when working in and around hazardous liquids.
The main difference between drysuits and wetsuits is that drysuits are designed to prevent water entering. This generally allows better insulation in drysuits making them more suitable for use in cold water. Drysuits can be uncomfortably hot in warm or hot air. They are generally more expensive than wetsuits.
The neck seal, the zip, the inflator, a wrist seal, and the manual vent of a neoprene drysuit
Low pressure air hose for the drysuit, CEJN type
//
Parts of a dry suit
Needed
Shell
The main part of the drysuit is a waterproof shell made from a membrane type material: neoprene, foam rubber, or a hybrid of both.
[edit] Membrane
Membrane drysuits are made from thin materials, and thus by themselves have little thermal insulation. They are commonly made of vulcanized rubber, or laminated layers of nylon and butyl rubber. Membrane drysuits typically do not stretch, so they need to be made oversized and baggy to allow flexibility at the joints through the wearer's range of motion. This makes membrane drysuits easy to put on and get off, provides a great range of motion for the wearer, and makes them comfortable to wear for long periods, as the wearer does not have to pull against rubber elasticity.
To stay warm in a membrane suit, the wearer must wear an insulating undersuit, today typically made with polyester or other synthetic fiber batting. Polyester and other synthetics are preferred over natural materials, since synthetic materials have better insulating properties when damp or wet from sweat, seepage, or a leak.
Reasonable care must be taken not to hole or tear membrane drysuits, because buoyancy and insulation depend completely on the gas pockets in the undersuit. The drysuit material offers essentially no buoyancy or insulation itself, so if the drysuit leaks or is torn, water can soak the undersuit, with a corresponding loss of buoyancy and insulation.
In warmer waters, some wearers wear specially designed membrane drysuits without an undersuit. These are different in design, materials, and construction from drysuits made for cold water diving.
Membrane drysuits may also be made of a waterproof and breathable material to enable comfortable wear when out of the water for long periods of time. Sailors and boaters who intend to stay out of the water prefer this type of suit.
Neoprene
Neoprene is a closed cell foam synthetic rubber, containing millions of tiny air bubbles, forming a buoyant and thermally insulating material. If torn or punctured, a neoprene suit still keeps the insulation and buoyancy of the neoprene's bubbles when flooded. Being made of a fairly rigid dense material, they are not as easy to get on and off as membrane drysuits, and their buoyancy and thermal protection decreases with depth as the air bubbles in the neoprene are compressed, like with wetsuits. Neoprene also tends to shrink over the years as it outgases and slowly becomes more rigid. An alternative is crushed or rolled neoprene, which is less susceptible to volume changes when under pressure and shrinks less. With neoprene suits thermal under suits are usually worn, however, less insulation is needed thus reducing the amount of weight needed to counteract its buoyancy than a membrane suit which uses a thicker undersuit.
Hybrid
Hybrid suits combine the features of both types, with a membrane top attached to a neoprene bottom near the waist. The neoprene part is usually configured as a sleeveless "farmer-john" that covers the torso as well. This style is often used for surface water sports, especially in very cold water. The tight fitting lower part lets the wearer kick while swimming, and the loose fitting top allows easy arm movement. The torso covering also provides additional self-rescue or survival time if the suit leaks.
Seals
Seals at the wrists and neck prevent water entering the suit by compressing in a ring like a rubber band around the wrists and neck. The seals are not absolutely watertight, however, and the wearer may experience some seepage during use. The wearer will also get damp due to sweat and condensation. The seals are made from latex rubber or neoprene. Latex seals are supple but easily damaged and deteriorate with exposure to oils, oxygen, and other materials, so they must be replaced periodically, every two years or more. Neoprene seals last longer, but, being stiffer, let more water enter because they do not seal as effectively as latex seals to the contours of wrist and neck skin. They are also typically glued and sewn together to form a ring, and may leak along that seam.
Waterproof entry
Shoulder (rear) entry zipper
Front entry zipper
Modern dry suits have a waterproof zipper for entry and exit which was originally developed by NASA to hold air inside astronaut space suits. The zipper is commonly installed across the back of the shoulders, but can also be found diagonally across the front of the torso, on the side, or straight down the middle of the front or back.
There are many zipper arrangements in use because the zipper is very rigid, and cannot stretch at all, which can make it difficult for a user to get into and out of the suit. The zipper opening is often quite small, since a large zipper makes the suit stiffer and more difficult to use. Some complex zipper arrangements that wrap around the neck or chest let the suit swing open with a flap or hinge point.
Dry suits may also be fitted with an extra waterproof zipper "fly" to let the user urinate when the suit is worn for long periods. Some snug-fitting suits may also use wrap-around expansion zippers that allow the suit to expand or contract to fit different size people.
Before waterproof zips were invented, other methods had to be devised, with the most common being a long rubber entry tunnel which would be flattened shut, then rolled together from the sides and finally folded and clamped with a metal clip. An early example was the Sladen suit, where the entry tunnel was at the umbilicus. The Louisiana-based drysuit company Aquala still makes a "historical" diving suit of that kind.
Another type was a rubber tunnel that protruded through a normal cloth zipper. The tunnel would be rolled shut and the zipper closed to hold the roll in place. At least one make of old-type British frogman's drysuit was one-piece with a wide neck hole for entry; the bottom of the hood and the edge of the suit's neck hole were held together by a large circular steel clamp around the neck; there was a watertight seal in the bottom of the hood. Two-piece drysuit designs in full length for year-round use and "shorty" styles for summer-season use were also common in the 1950s and early 1960s. Two-piece suits of the period include the American-made Spearfisherman frogman suit, US Divers Seal Suit and the So Lo Marx Skooba Totes suit, the Italian-made Pirelli suit and the UK-made Heinke Delta suit and Siebe-Heinke Dip suit. These suits were sealed at the waist by rolling together the excess material at the bottom of the shirt and the top of the pants. A cummerbund, rail, or surgical tubing was sometimes provided to make the seal more waterproof. A modern version of the two-piece drysuit is manufactured by Customworks of Idaho. Though lacking such features as valves and zippers, these suits still have certain advantages over their modern counterparts. For example, they are cheaper, less bulky, more easily repaired and the footed pants could also double as fishing waders.
Optional
Thermal undersuits
For cold-water use, especially diving under ice sheets, the user will usually wear a thick undersuit in a membrane dry suit. The thickness of undersuits varies and can be chosen by the wearer according the water temperature. Thinsulate is the preferred fabric for undersuits.[5][6] More recently, aerogel material is being added to conventional undergarments to increase the insulating properties of those garments.[7] Neoprene dry suits are made from a foam-rubber sheet containing tiny air bubbles, which provide insulation by themselves and generally eliminates the need for an undersuit. A neoprene wetsuit can also be worn under a membrane dry suit for extra protection against condensation and leaks.
Gloves, mitts, and 3-finger mitts
Drysuits may have wrist seals, permanently attached gloves/mitts, or a third option known as the attachment ring (described below).
If it is not important to have exposed bare hands[8], permanently attached heavy rubber gloves or mitts can help make getting in and out of the suit much easier since there is no need for the suit to tightly seal around the wrists. Instead, the wearer can slip into the attached gloves as if they were a loose-fitting coat sleeve.
Full-hand diving mitts can be sometimes useful in extreme environments such as ice diving.
Three-finger mitts are a midpoint between gloves and mittens. In the three-finger mitts, the fingers are arranged like the science-fiction Vulcan salute. This provides slightly better hand-grasping dexterity while still permitting heavy insulation around the hands.
Hoods
The drysuit may also have an integrated hood, which seals water out around the wearer's face, and helps keep the wearer's head warm. The integrated hood is often latex rubber that fits tightly around the head, but can also be made from neoprene or membrane to allow an insulating cap to be worn under the hood. Care must be taken to avoid the hood making a waterproof seal around either of the ears, as this would risk an eardrum bursting outwards at depth.
Separate (non integral) neoprene hoods for use with a dry suit are different from wetsuit hoods, because they cannot be tucked inside the suit at the collar, as this would compromise the neck seal; with these the wearer's head gets wet, which would be a risk when diving in contaminated water.
Helmets
When a diver needs to be underwater for long periods of time day after day, a snug-fitting elastic hood can cause uncomfortable pressure sores on the ears, face, and jaw. To alleviate this and to permit easy communication with the surface and between divers, a hard metal or plastic diving helmet may be worn with the drysuit. This can be separate from the drysuit with its own watertight neck seal, or it can be permanently attached with a neck ring, and air from the helmet can enter into the suit.
Boots
Most commercial diving dry suits have heavy built-in boots. Sport diving suits may have boots or thin sheet-rubber booties. Surface dry suits may have booties or ankle seals to allow better foot control of water skis and surfboards. Surface dry suits may be used with separate non-waterproof neoprene booties for foot warmth, and aqua-shoes for protection while using personal watercraft.
For a commercial environment where the option of interchangeable boots for different sizes of feet is desired, the legs of the dry suit can also be fitted with attachment rings (described below). Some commercial divers order their suits without boots and install rubber work boots such as those used by miners or [[Firefighterfirefighters].
Weight boots
For commercial drysuit divers who must work on the sea bottom or on an underwater platform (such as under an oil rig), the drysuit may be fitted with heavy metal boots to keep the diver firmly weighted down. This allows the suit to be comfortably inflated like a balloon as the diver works, without concern that the diver may float uncontrollably to the surface. These divers cannot swim freely, and may need to ride an underwater cable elevator down to the work area.
Attachment rings
Dry suits with latex seals; Top: quick-change seal (Viking ring); Bottom: standard glued seal.
These are typically only seen on professional and commercial diving suits. They allow separate neck seals, gloves, and boots to be joined to the suit with a watertight seal. The attachment ring system uses a support ring inside the suit and a clamping band outside the suit to tightly hold the suit and the separate hood/boot/glove together. They were also used with the neck seals of some old British frogman-type drysuits (see above).
The support ring can optionally be slipped into the sleeve of a regular drysuit that has wrist seals, to temporarily put watertight rubber gloves on the suit, or the wrist seals can be removed and the inner support ring is permanently attached inside the sleeve. The support ring may be a large one-piece unit that can be slipped over the head/hands/feet, or it may be split into halves that can be directly installed up close around the neck/wrists/ankles.
Attachment rings let a commercial diver change his suit to best perform the task at hand. Wrist seals can still be used with an attachment ring suit; they are mounted onto the ring like a pair of gloves.
Valves
A typical diving drysuit has an air exhaust valve, which lets the diver vent gas from the suit during the ascent. This is necessary because when the diver ascends, the air in the suit expands, balloons out the suit, and hinders movement. The air in a ballooned suit can overcome the diver's neutral buoyancy, and can cause a sudden uncontrolled ascent to the surface, resulting in decompression sickness and loss of consciousness.
Vent valves can be automatic, operating as pressure relief valves, or manual, where the diver must raise the valve to vent. Automatic vents are generally at the shoulder, and manual vents are at the wrist. Some older drysuits have no vents, but the diver must lift one of the wrist seals or the neck seal open to vent the drysuit. Surface dry suits are not inflated, and must be vented to remove most of the gas inside.
Because the air inside the suit is compressed as the diver descends, a modern diving drysuit also has a gas inflation valve, which lets the diver control the buoyancy of the suit by injecting gas from a diving cylinder to avoid the suit from being squeezed tightly and painfully onto the diver's body during descent. The sensation is similar to being pinched, but all over the body. Suit squeeze can also hinder the diver's movement and make swimming more difficult.
Some old-type frogman's drysuits had a small "jack cylinder" to be inflated from, or the frogman (who was using an oxygen rebreather and so limited to about 30 feet (9.144 m) depth) had to put up with the suit squeeze.
Normally, the gas used for dry suit inflation for diving is air from the primary breathing cylinder. When divers breathe helium-based gas mixes such as trimix, they often avoid inflating their suits with the helium-based gas due to its high thermal conductivity. They often carry a separate cylinder for this purpose; generally it contains air, although sometimes argon, which has lower thermal conductivity, is used. Pure argon cannot be used as a breathing gas. Alternatively, some trimix divers inflate their suits from a decompression cylinder containing a nitrox blend.
In surface dry suits, the wearer normally never dives deeply underwater, and is not concerned about neutral buoyancy, so there are no air valves on a surface drysuit.
The P-Valve
For commercial divers or technical divers who may spend many hours in a drysuit underwater, it is not practical to have to climb back onboard the ship in order to open a waterproof relief zipper and urinate. The P-valve is a urinal built into the suit, which lets a male diver relieve himself at any time without having to get out of the water, and keeping him dry and clean inside the suit.
Before putting on the drysuit, the diver puts on a condom catheter, which is similar to a condom except that it is made of thicker material with a cuff or adhesive ring to prevent it from slipping off, and its end connects to a built-on drain tube. After putting it on, he attaches the end of the tube to a drain hose in the crotch of the suit. This drain hose leads to a vent opening just above a knee, and may also have a one-way valve (P-valve)to prevent ocean water from flowing back in if the hose gets disconnected.
Divers intending to urinate in drysuits sometimes wear an adult diaper / nappy, which soaks up and retains the urine.
NOTE:
Gundam (mobile suit)
The RX-78 Gundam is a series of fictional testbed mobile suits in the Gundam Universal Century developed by the Earth Federation. The titular mobile suit of the series, the RX-78-2 Gundam, is a member of this series. The RX-78-2 Gundam serves as the iconic symbol of the Gundam universe and sparked the creation of its multiple sequels and spinoffs.
//
Concepts and development
The RX-78's initial concept was that of a powered armor, the primary design for Yoshiyuki Tomino's proposed series Freedom Fighter Gunboy. The series later changed its name to Mobile Suit Gundam and Kunio Okawara was given Tomino's concept to shape into a finalized design for the anime. Okawara created multiple designs before settling on the current, samurai-styled design for the anime in 1979.
One of the common questions asked is why did the enemies in the series keep referring to the RX-78-2 as White while it is a mix of blue, red, and white. Tomino's response in the novel version of Gundam is that the original design was to be a grayscale machine, made up of mostly white and light gray colouring. However, Sunrise disapproved of the colouring and insisted the unit to be painted in brighter colours to attract attention, like other Super Robot anime at that time.
The original design of the three primary mobile suits, "Gundam" (left), "Guncannon" (center) and "Guntank" (right)
Although the 'original' Gundam, the RX-78-2 design was expanded to be the second in a line of 8 Gundams; preceding model RX-78-1 and later models RX-78-3~8. These were designed by Okawara between 1980 and 1983 for Mobile Suit Variations. Other mechnical designers later added further design variations; including Yutaka Izubuchi's RX-78-NT-1, designed in 1989 for Mobile Suit Gundam 0080, and Shoji Kawamori's and Hajime Katoki's Gundam Development Project designs in 1992 for Gundam 0083. The RX-78-2 has also been redesigned several times by other artists. In particular, the Hajime Katoki's version of the Gundam (referred to by Gundam fans and Bandai themselves as Ver. Ka) has become popular enough to be made into both injection plastic model kits sold by Bandai and resin-based garage kits sold by their B-Club subsidiary. Okawara himself redesigned the Gundam for original character designer Yoshikazu Yasuhiko's manga Mobile Suit Gundam: The Origin, a retelling of the events of the original series. Though mostly identical to the original, it features slightly different designs for its weapons, a small vulcan pod in its shoulder, and the ability to replace one of the beam sabers stored in its backpack with a cannon similar to that of the Guncannon. In addition, the fifteenth installment of the Gundam Evolve series of shorts features another variation on the RX-78's design, a highly stylized version of the iconic machine based on "modern" design aesthetics. It has been referred as Ver. Evolve 15.
The continuing popularity in Japan of this mobile suit has led Bandai to create a 1.5m tall model version, which will go on sale in Japan in 2007.[1]
The Japan Self-Defense Forces built an approximately full scale RX-78-3 Gundam with styrofoam in its show and contains a simulation pod.[2]
Gundam Expo (Hong Kong) uses the RX-78's last shooting scene in its logo's X.[3]
Role in plot
The deployment of the Principality of Zeon's mobile suits, the MS-05B Zaku I and the MS-06F Zaku II, in the One Year War had given the small nation a major tactical edge over the much larger Earth Federation. Capable of propellant-less manoeuvring thanks to their AMBAC systems, and able to be retrofitted to suit a variety of missions and environments, they easily outclassed the Federation's arsenal of fighters and ground vehicles. Realizing that the gap needed to be closed, the Federation instituted Project V (short for "Project Victory"), a development program that would produce a counterpart Federation mobile suit design, with the ability for mass-production a requirement. While the ultimate result of the program was the RGM-79 GM, the engineers in the project tested several design concepts for the mass-production units in the RX-78 series. Some of the developments in the RX-78 models were later incorporated into the GM line, but many were scrapped due to cost and/or complexity.
Only 8 RX-78 suits were produced during the One Year War, although continual remodelling and upgrading created the impression that there were more than eight units. Although the RX-78 suits are designated RX-78-1~8, the final digit indicated the design version of the unit, and not the unit's actual number.
In addition, the EFAF (Earth Federation Air Force) created their own RX-78E (GT FOUR/Gundam Transformer/Flight & Operations Unifications Reactors), which is different from the 8 RX-78s produced. Another extra unit is the RX-78XX, which uses scrap parts of the RX-78s, and again is not considered to be one of the original line. The NT-1 is actually RX-78 unit 4 remodelled (original model unknown). After the One Year War, the GP series are numbered after the RX-78 convention, despite being newly produced units.
The variation among the Gundams was originally indicated by differences in colouration, indicating upgrades to completely internal equipment and technology, although later variants displayed externally-visible upgrades. For example, Unit 4's NT-1 configuration have extra thrusters, additional armor, and a 360 degree panoramic cockpit, while Unit 4 and Unit 5, which exist mainly in games and as model kits, provide additional mounting points and weaponry.
The RX-78 series introduced Minovsky particle weaponry to mobile suits, developing and deploying the first successful beam rifle and beam saber. These would form the primary component of mobile suit weaponry for at least the next hundred and fifty years. The core block system was also introduced in the RX-78, as well as the RX-75 Guntank and RX-77 Guncannon. This system allowed the pilot to escape the destruction of his mobile suit in a functional aerospace fighter, as well as housing a learning computer that can gather performance data from the suit's combat sorties. This however had to be dropped from subsequent units due to cost issues. However, it was reused on occasion (most notably in the Anaheim Electronics MSZ-010 Double Zeta Gundam during the First Neo-Zeon War), and later resurrected by the League Militaire in the UC 0150s on the LM312V04 Victory Gundam.
After the cessation of the One Year War, the Federation opened up a black-ops mobile suit development program, the Gundam Development Project, in order to develop mobile suits to fill roles that had appeared in analysis of combat operations from the One Year War. The major reason that the project was designated black-op was because of the RX-78GP02A Gundam Physalis, which was armed with an atomic bazooka, in violation of the Antarctic Treaty. After the events of Gundam 0083, all details of the Gundam Development Project were stricken from the official records.
The RX-78 line was finally superseded in UC 0087 by the RX-178 Gundam Mk-II, developed by the Titans.
Variations
RX-78-1 Prototype Gundam
First appeared as part of the Mobile Suit Variations model kit series and designed by Kunio Okawara. Used to test the basic armaments and functions for the final Gundam design, it is nearly cosmetically identical to the Gundam seen in the original series, other than a different color scheme, a simplified beam rifle, a different forearm design, and corrugation on its ankle armor. Before the events of the animation all units of this type were upgraded to the famous RX-78-2 model. The version of the Prototype Gundam from the manga Gundam: The Origin, production code RX-78-01, looks considerably different from Kunio Okawara's version drawn in 1983. While still recognizably a Gundam, it is chiefly a cream color with dark grey accents. The pair of eyes seen on the RX-78-02's head are replaced by a goggle-like visor, and it is seen with a large cannon on its backpack in volume 1 of the manga, its only appearance in the story. In the manga, it sees a few fleeting moments of combat in Side 7 with a Zaku before both are destroyed.
RX-78-3 G-3 Gundam
First appeared as part of the Mobile Suit Variations model kit series and designed by Kunio Okawara. This variant fulfilled the role of the RX-78-2 in the novel version of Mobile Suit Gundam where partway through the story the RX-78-2 was lost in combat. In terms of the official canon, it is a testbed Mobile Suit, built using the remains of other RX-78 units and used to test Mosk Han's magnet coating technology. The G-3 is cosmetically identical to the RX-78-2 Gundam, save for a new color scheme (grey and blue in the line art, grey and violet in more recent merchandise). Because it is identical to the RX-78-2, the G-3 is a fairly common variant in model and action figure form, either with full commercial releases or as limited edition figures and models.
RX-78-4 Gundam G04
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series, released in book form shortly after Char's Counterattack. The design was updated by Hajime Katoki for use in the Playstation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters In Space. Its main weapon is a mega beam launcher, giving it firepower equivalent to a capital ship. Piloted by Lieutenand Junior Grade Luce Kassel, the G04 was nearly destroyed in an assault on an enemy force launching from the Moon. Its mega beam launcher was able to destroy the fleet, but not without injuring Luce. Encounters in Space explores two variations. One where Luce dies and the spare parts of G04 are used to make the Booster equipped G05, which protected Prime Minister Darcia Bakharov's Chivvay on its way ot the moon, and another where Luce lives and G04 and G05 serve in the Battle of A Baoa Qu.
RX-78-5 Gundam G05
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series. The design was updated by Hajime Katoki for be use in the Playstation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters In Space. The G05 acts as a backup unit for the G04, using a Gatling gun rather than the mega beam launcher. Encounters in Space explres two variations for the G05, based o on whether or not Luce Kassel survives the mega beam launcher mission. If Luce dies, then G05 will defend Prime Minister Darcia Bakharov's ship until it reaches the Moon. If Luce survives, then G05 will serve in the Battle of A Baoa Qu, but will ultimately be destroyed by a stray shot from a Gelgoog.
RX-78-6 Mudrock Gundam
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series as the 6th Gundam. The design was updated by Hajime Katoki for use as a boss character in the Playstation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Zeonic Front. A hybrid of the Gundam and Guncannon, its most notable design feature is a pair of 300 mm cannons on its shoulders. Another notable feature is that the mobile suit "hovers" rather than using it legs when moving, making it similar to Zeon's MS-09 Dom in terms of movement, making it a fearsome opponent. The Mudrock made its debut during the Battle of Jaburo, albeit incomplete. Piloted by the hotheaded Lieutenant Agar, the Mudrock was tasked with defending the Pegasus class battleship Blanc Rival from Zeon's elite Midnight Fenrir team. Despite a valiant effort, both the ship and the Gundam were heavily damaged by the elite squadron. Later during the recapture of California Base, Agar took the Mudrock out again, this time completed, against the Midnight Fenrir who were staying on Earth to defend the last Heavy Lifting Vehicle (HLV, a sort of heavy cargo-carrying space shuttle). Though the Mudrock wreaked havoc on the remaining defense forces, it was ultimately defeated once and for all by the Fenrir team.
RX-78-7 7th Gundam
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series, which was published after the movie Char's Counter Attack. It was said to be incomplete and only having the basic frame built within the One Year War. This unit is an attempt to have multiple hard points for attaching armour and specific equipment like the Full Armour (FA-78-3) and a second set of equipment that can be equipped on top of the first set and would have given it extremely high mobility and firepower equivalent to a battleship (FHA-78-3). This unit serves as a retcon technology link between the RX-78 and MSA-0011 S Gundam's Plan 303E Deep Striker variant, with RX-78GP03 as another linkage.
RX-78NT-1 Gundam NT-1 "Alex"
RX-78NT-1 Gundam NT-1 "Alex"
Primary Mobile Suit featured in the 1989 OVA Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket OVA, designed by Yutaka Izubuchi. The first direct variant of the RX-78 to be animated (except for the Gundam Mk. II from Zeta Gundam), it helped pave the way for the appearance of other variants, such as those from Gundam 0083, as pivotal elements of the plot. In War in the Pocket, the Alex was developed to replace the RX-78-2, optimized for increased reaction time of Newtypes, though its test pilot was not a Newtype herself. With its panoramic cockpit, the Alex serves as a retconned technological link between the original series and Zeta Gundam.
Offensively, the Alex sports large multi-barreled cannons concealed beneath the blue pods on either arm in addition to a pair of small Vulcan guns mounted on the head and the ubiquitous backpack-stored beam sabers.
The Alex could be outfitted with a Chobham armour shell that offered it extra protection. Its data would be used for the GM Custom. The Chobham armour design would be used to reinforce the body of the GM Cannon II. Both of these later GM's appear in Gundam 0083, further bridging the gap between the original series and Zeta.
RX-78NT-X NT-X
One of SD Gundam G Generation Spirits's original units. An improved model of Gundam Alex, equipped with wire-guide bit, remote control weapon.
RX-78XX Gundam Pixie
Secondary Mobile Suit of the Mobile Suit Gundam: Cross Dimension 0079 video game, designed by Kunio Okawara. A light weight close combat variant, armed with beam knives and a sub-machine gun.
PF-78-1 Perfect Gundam
First appeared in manga Plamo Kyo-shiro, the first non-UC Gundam, in other media. It does have special armor plamo-kit build by Shiro Kyoda. Most it does appear in SD Gundam G Generation, as special unit, include the kit builder, Shiro Kyoda, as the pilot. It also appear in A.C.E. 3. The unit itself would later-rolled back to UC with a UC mecha setting due to its popularity. Basically it is similar to Full-Armor Gundam as having similar appearance, only with original colors. Since it is a Gundam Model, built for battle-simulation machines, it armaments departs from the other Gundam, which including a water-spray gun, an air-gun bullet Vulcan, and smoke grenades. Perfect Gundam's Armour can be detached in the battle and become a normal Gundam.
0 Gundam
This is a slight edit of the RX-78-2 Gundam with a solar reactor, or GN Drive installed, appearing in the first and last episode of Mobile Suit Gundam 00. In the Anno Domini timeline, this was the first unit to have a GN Drive installed in the series. Not much else is know, because it only appears for a short while and it had it's GN Drive removed, put in side of a different unit, 00 Gundam.
Pop culture
The appearance of the unit is not limited to Gundam series. RX-78-2 Gundam is one of the basic units that appear in the Super Robot Wars series, ever since the first game for the Game Boy. [4] The RX-78-2 also receives multiple cameo appearances in the anime Sgt. Frog. [5] The current Bandai models' label classification also uses the head of the Gundam as its icon.
Later anime series keep referencing the RX-78's proficiency in combat, by having a white mobile suit appearing in the middle of the battlefield, and anything white is often mistaken as a Gundam-type mobile suit along with the famous cry of "It's a Gundam!". This also appears in other anime; for example, in episode 9 of The Melancholy of Suzumiya Haruhi, the phrase is overheard while Tsuruya is searching for Mikuru.
Pepsi campaign
The RX-78 is a pop culture icon in Japan, to the point where Pepsi released several series of Pepsi bottles with special-edition bottle caps featuring miniature statues of various mobile suits from the many Gundam anime released over the years. [6][7] The RX-78 was one of three of these designs (the other two being both the normal Zaku and Char's red Zaku) to have multiple miniatures released during the first promotional campaign, including both a full-body sculpture and a sculpture of its bust.
Japanese stamps
The RX-78 Gundam was recognized as a culturally significant subject by the nation of Japan on October 23, 2000, with the inclusion of the suit and of the main pilot on two stamps in the 20th Century Stamp Series. [8]
Additionally, this mobile suit and other notable machines from various Gundam series were recognized in the second set of "Anime Heroes and Heroines" stamps, released in 2005. It was one of only four franchises to be given the honor; the others were Pokémon, Galaxy Express 999, and Detective Conan. [9]
Mitsubishi seminars
As part of MHI Jobcon 2005 (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Job Convention 2005), a recruiting event of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, seminars were held in six Japanese cities. The topic of these seminars was "Mobile Suit Gundam Development Story"; which indicated the requirements and processes that Mitsubishi would have to implement if the company had been required to build an RX-78 mobile suit. [10]
Gundam Evolve
The RX-78-2 Gundam has been the featured mobile suit in two of the Gundam Evolve short films. The first Evolve short "RX-78-2 Gundam" featured it in a limited capacity, instead focusing on its pilot Amuro Ray, who reminisced about the previous battles he had gone through while waiting to sortie. The second short film to feature the Gundam is the 15th installment of the Evolve series, a remake of the episode "Newtype Challia Bull" from the original series. Instead of basing the CGI models on the original line art from the series, the Gundam was completely redesigned to fit a more modernized aesthetic. The other main mobile weapons in the short — the GM, Guncannon, and Challia Bull's Braw Bro — were also redesigned to a considerable degree.
Fire Fighting Poster
The RX-78-2 Gundam & 2 Medea transport planes were featured in a fire fighting poster in Japan. The RX-78-2 was equipped with water spraying equipment instead of weapons.
Model Sales
According to Katoki Hajime commenting the poles from Newtype (magazine), as quoted in Newtype magazine serialized Seed Club 4 koma short comic series, as of 26th August, 2005, the MG RX-78-2 Gundam Ver. 1.5 ranked TOP1 in Gundam Traditional MG because it is the best valued model if one wants to buy the original Gundam; and the MG RX-78-5 Gundam G05 ranked TOP1 in Easiest to build MG since its appearance in various games and Gundam Ace magazine, a lot of people liked the unit and although the design looks like the original Gundam, it does not carry the old stinkiness(古臭) feeling and is modeled specially for new model builders, gaining it fame in an easy building model kit category.[11]
Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution
According to Gundam-san 4 koma comic, the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution appearance is influenced by the RX-78-2 Gundam.[12]
Ink and wash painting
In 2008, the Ink and wash painting of Gundam drawn by Hisashi in 2005 was sold in the Christie's auction held in Hong Kong with a price of US$600000.[13][14]
Gundam Crisis
The RX 78-2 Gundam had a full 1/1 scale mock-up constructed for the theme park attraction Gundam Crisis. It costs 800 yen to go into the attraction and the attraction is basically a game where the players have to complete about 8 different missions within 8 minutes (1 minute per mission) in order to access the cockpit. If successful, players are shown a special, Gundam related video inside the cockpit.
NOTE:
//
Concepts and development
The RX-78's initial concept was that of a powered armor, the primary design for Yoshiyuki Tomino's proposed series Freedom Fighter Gunboy. The series later changed its name to Mobile Suit Gundam and Kunio Okawara was given Tomino's concept to shape into a finalized design for the anime. Okawara created multiple designs before settling on the current, samurai-styled design for the anime in 1979.
One of the common questions asked is why did the enemies in the series keep referring to the RX-78-2 as White while it is a mix of blue, red, and white. Tomino's response in the novel version of Gundam is that the original design was to be a grayscale machine, made up of mostly white and light gray colouring. However, Sunrise disapproved of the colouring and insisted the unit to be painted in brighter colours to attract attention, like other Super Robot anime at that time.
The original design of the three primary mobile suits, "Gundam" (left), "Guncannon" (center) and "Guntank" (right)
Although the 'original' Gundam, the RX-78-2 design was expanded to be the second in a line of 8 Gundams; preceding model RX-78-1 and later models RX-78-3~8. These were designed by Okawara between 1980 and 1983 for Mobile Suit Variations. Other mechnical designers later added further design variations; including Yutaka Izubuchi's RX-78-NT-1, designed in 1989 for Mobile Suit Gundam 0080, and Shoji Kawamori's and Hajime Katoki's Gundam Development Project designs in 1992 for Gundam 0083. The RX-78-2 has also been redesigned several times by other artists. In particular, the Hajime Katoki's version of the Gundam (referred to by Gundam fans and Bandai themselves as Ver. Ka) has become popular enough to be made into both injection plastic model kits sold by Bandai and resin-based garage kits sold by their B-Club subsidiary. Okawara himself redesigned the Gundam for original character designer Yoshikazu Yasuhiko's manga Mobile Suit Gundam: The Origin, a retelling of the events of the original series. Though mostly identical to the original, it features slightly different designs for its weapons, a small vulcan pod in its shoulder, and the ability to replace one of the beam sabers stored in its backpack with a cannon similar to that of the Guncannon. In addition, the fifteenth installment of the Gundam Evolve series of shorts features another variation on the RX-78's design, a highly stylized version of the iconic machine based on "modern" design aesthetics. It has been referred as Ver. Evolve 15.
The continuing popularity in Japan of this mobile suit has led Bandai to create a 1.5m tall model version, which will go on sale in Japan in 2007.[1]
The Japan Self-Defense Forces built an approximately full scale RX-78-3 Gundam with styrofoam in its show and contains a simulation pod.[2]
Gundam Expo (Hong Kong) uses the RX-78's last shooting scene in its logo's X.[3]
Role in plot
The deployment of the Principality of Zeon's mobile suits, the MS-05B Zaku I and the MS-06F Zaku II, in the One Year War had given the small nation a major tactical edge over the much larger Earth Federation. Capable of propellant-less manoeuvring thanks to their AMBAC systems, and able to be retrofitted to suit a variety of missions and environments, they easily outclassed the Federation's arsenal of fighters and ground vehicles. Realizing that the gap needed to be closed, the Federation instituted Project V (short for "Project Victory"), a development program that would produce a counterpart Federation mobile suit design, with the ability for mass-production a requirement. While the ultimate result of the program was the RGM-79 GM, the engineers in the project tested several design concepts for the mass-production units in the RX-78 series. Some of the developments in the RX-78 models were later incorporated into the GM line, but many were scrapped due to cost and/or complexity.
Only 8 RX-78 suits were produced during the One Year War, although continual remodelling and upgrading created the impression that there were more than eight units. Although the RX-78 suits are designated RX-78-1~8, the final digit indicated the design version of the unit, and not the unit's actual number.
In addition, the EFAF (Earth Federation Air Force) created their own RX-78E (GT FOUR/Gundam Transformer/Flight & Operations Unifications Reactors), which is different from the 8 RX-78s produced. Another extra unit is the RX-78XX, which uses scrap parts of the RX-78s, and again is not considered to be one of the original line. The NT-1 is actually RX-78 unit 4 remodelled (original model unknown). After the One Year War, the GP series are numbered after the RX-78 convention, despite being newly produced units.
The variation among the Gundams was originally indicated by differences in colouration, indicating upgrades to completely internal equipment and technology, although later variants displayed externally-visible upgrades. For example, Unit 4's NT-1 configuration have extra thrusters, additional armor, and a 360 degree panoramic cockpit, while Unit 4 and Unit 5, which exist mainly in games and as model kits, provide additional mounting points and weaponry.
The RX-78 series introduced Minovsky particle weaponry to mobile suits, developing and deploying the first successful beam rifle and beam saber. These would form the primary component of mobile suit weaponry for at least the next hundred and fifty years. The core block system was also introduced in the RX-78, as well as the RX-75 Guntank and RX-77 Guncannon. This system allowed the pilot to escape the destruction of his mobile suit in a functional aerospace fighter, as well as housing a learning computer that can gather performance data from the suit's combat sorties. This however had to be dropped from subsequent units due to cost issues. However, it was reused on occasion (most notably in the Anaheim Electronics MSZ-010 Double Zeta Gundam during the First Neo-Zeon War), and later resurrected by the League Militaire in the UC 0150s on the LM312V04 Victory Gundam.
After the cessation of the One Year War, the Federation opened up a black-ops mobile suit development program, the Gundam Development Project, in order to develop mobile suits to fill roles that had appeared in analysis of combat operations from the One Year War. The major reason that the project was designated black-op was because of the RX-78GP02A Gundam Physalis, which was armed with an atomic bazooka, in violation of the Antarctic Treaty. After the events of Gundam 0083, all details of the Gundam Development Project were stricken from the official records.
The RX-78 line was finally superseded in UC 0087 by the RX-178 Gundam Mk-II, developed by the Titans.
Variations
RX-78-1 Prototype Gundam
First appeared as part of the Mobile Suit Variations model kit series and designed by Kunio Okawara. Used to test the basic armaments and functions for the final Gundam design, it is nearly cosmetically identical to the Gundam seen in the original series, other than a different color scheme, a simplified beam rifle, a different forearm design, and corrugation on its ankle armor. Before the events of the animation all units of this type were upgraded to the famous RX-78-2 model. The version of the Prototype Gundam from the manga Gundam: The Origin, production code RX-78-01, looks considerably different from Kunio Okawara's version drawn in 1983. While still recognizably a Gundam, it is chiefly a cream color with dark grey accents. The pair of eyes seen on the RX-78-02's head are replaced by a goggle-like visor, and it is seen with a large cannon on its backpack in volume 1 of the manga, its only appearance in the story. In the manga, it sees a few fleeting moments of combat in Side 7 with a Zaku before both are destroyed.
RX-78-3 G-3 Gundam
First appeared as part of the Mobile Suit Variations model kit series and designed by Kunio Okawara. This variant fulfilled the role of the RX-78-2 in the novel version of Mobile Suit Gundam where partway through the story the RX-78-2 was lost in combat. In terms of the official canon, it is a testbed Mobile Suit, built using the remains of other RX-78 units and used to test Mosk Han's magnet coating technology. The G-3 is cosmetically identical to the RX-78-2 Gundam, save for a new color scheme (grey and blue in the line art, grey and violet in more recent merchandise). Because it is identical to the RX-78-2, the G-3 is a fairly common variant in model and action figure form, either with full commercial releases or as limited edition figures and models.
RX-78-4 Gundam G04
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series, released in book form shortly after Char's Counterattack. The design was updated by Hajime Katoki for use in the Playstation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters In Space. Its main weapon is a mega beam launcher, giving it firepower equivalent to a capital ship. Piloted by Lieutenand Junior Grade Luce Kassel, the G04 was nearly destroyed in an assault on an enemy force launching from the Moon. Its mega beam launcher was able to destroy the fleet, but not without injuring Luce. Encounters in Space explores two variations. One where Luce dies and the spare parts of G04 are used to make the Booster equipped G05, which protected Prime Minister Darcia Bakharov's Chivvay on its way ot the moon, and another where Luce lives and G04 and G05 serve in the Battle of A Baoa Qu.
RX-78-5 Gundam G05
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series. The design was updated by Hajime Katoki for be use in the Playstation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters In Space. The G05 acts as a backup unit for the G04, using a Gatling gun rather than the mega beam launcher. Encounters in Space explres two variations for the G05, based o on whether or not Luce Kassel survives the mega beam launcher mission. If Luce dies, then G05 will defend Prime Minister Darcia Bakharov's ship until it reaches the Moon. If Luce survives, then G05 will serve in the Battle of A Baoa Qu, but will ultimately be destroyed by a stray shot from a Gelgoog.
RX-78-6 Mudrock Gundam
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series as the 6th Gundam. The design was updated by Hajime Katoki for use as a boss character in the Playstation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Zeonic Front. A hybrid of the Gundam and Guncannon, its most notable design feature is a pair of 300 mm cannons on its shoulders. Another notable feature is that the mobile suit "hovers" rather than using it legs when moving, making it similar to Zeon's MS-09 Dom in terms of movement, making it a fearsome opponent. The Mudrock made its debut during the Battle of Jaburo, albeit incomplete. Piloted by the hotheaded Lieutenant Agar, the Mudrock was tasked with defending the Pegasus class battleship Blanc Rival from Zeon's elite Midnight Fenrir team. Despite a valiant effort, both the ship and the Gundam were heavily damaged by the elite squadron. Later during the recapture of California Base, Agar took the Mudrock out again, this time completed, against the Midnight Fenrir who were staying on Earth to defend the last Heavy Lifting Vehicle (HLV, a sort of heavy cargo-carrying space shuttle). Though the Mudrock wreaked havoc on the remaining defense forces, it was ultimately defeated once and for all by the Fenrir team.
RX-78-7 7th Gundam
First appeared as part of Kunio Okawara's MS Collection original design series, which was published after the movie Char's Counter Attack. It was said to be incomplete and only having the basic frame built within the One Year War. This unit is an attempt to have multiple hard points for attaching armour and specific equipment like the Full Armour (FA-78-3) and a second set of equipment that can be equipped on top of the first set and would have given it extremely high mobility and firepower equivalent to a battleship (FHA-78-3). This unit serves as a retcon technology link between the RX-78 and MSA-0011 S Gundam's Plan 303E Deep Striker variant, with RX-78GP03 as another linkage.
RX-78NT-1 Gundam NT-1 "Alex"
RX-78NT-1 Gundam NT-1 "Alex"
Primary Mobile Suit featured in the 1989 OVA Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket OVA, designed by Yutaka Izubuchi. The first direct variant of the RX-78 to be animated (except for the Gundam Mk. II from Zeta Gundam), it helped pave the way for the appearance of other variants, such as those from Gundam 0083, as pivotal elements of the plot. In War in the Pocket, the Alex was developed to replace the RX-78-2, optimized for increased reaction time of Newtypes, though its test pilot was not a Newtype herself. With its panoramic cockpit, the Alex serves as a retconned technological link between the original series and Zeta Gundam.
Offensively, the Alex sports large multi-barreled cannons concealed beneath the blue pods on either arm in addition to a pair of small Vulcan guns mounted on the head and the ubiquitous backpack-stored beam sabers.
The Alex could be outfitted with a Chobham armour shell that offered it extra protection. Its data would be used for the GM Custom. The Chobham armour design would be used to reinforce the body of the GM Cannon II. Both of these later GM's appear in Gundam 0083, further bridging the gap between the original series and Zeta.
RX-78NT-X NT-X
One of SD Gundam G Generation Spirits's original units. An improved model of Gundam Alex, equipped with wire-guide bit, remote control weapon.
RX-78XX Gundam Pixie
Secondary Mobile Suit of the Mobile Suit Gundam: Cross Dimension 0079 video game, designed by Kunio Okawara. A light weight close combat variant, armed with beam knives and a sub-machine gun.
PF-78-1 Perfect Gundam
First appeared in manga Plamo Kyo-shiro, the first non-UC Gundam, in other media. It does have special armor plamo-kit build by Shiro Kyoda. Most it does appear in SD Gundam G Generation, as special unit, include the kit builder, Shiro Kyoda, as the pilot. It also appear in A.C.E. 3. The unit itself would later-rolled back to UC with a UC mecha setting due to its popularity. Basically it is similar to Full-Armor Gundam as having similar appearance, only with original colors. Since it is a Gundam Model, built for battle-simulation machines, it armaments departs from the other Gundam, which including a water-spray gun, an air-gun bullet Vulcan, and smoke grenades. Perfect Gundam's Armour can be detached in the battle and become a normal Gundam.
0 Gundam
This is a slight edit of the RX-78-2 Gundam with a solar reactor, or GN Drive installed, appearing in the first and last episode of Mobile Suit Gundam 00. In the Anno Domini timeline, this was the first unit to have a GN Drive installed in the series. Not much else is know, because it only appears for a short while and it had it's GN Drive removed, put in side of a different unit, 00 Gundam.
Pop culture
The appearance of the unit is not limited to Gundam series. RX-78-2 Gundam is one of the basic units that appear in the Super Robot Wars series, ever since the first game for the Game Boy. [4] The RX-78-2 also receives multiple cameo appearances in the anime Sgt. Frog. [5] The current Bandai models' label classification also uses the head of the Gundam as its icon.
Later anime series keep referencing the RX-78's proficiency in combat, by having a white mobile suit appearing in the middle of the battlefield, and anything white is often mistaken as a Gundam-type mobile suit along with the famous cry of "It's a Gundam!". This also appears in other anime; for example, in episode 9 of The Melancholy of Suzumiya Haruhi, the phrase is overheard while Tsuruya is searching for Mikuru.
Pepsi campaign
The RX-78 is a pop culture icon in Japan, to the point where Pepsi released several series of Pepsi bottles with special-edition bottle caps featuring miniature statues of various mobile suits from the many Gundam anime released over the years. [6][7] The RX-78 was one of three of these designs (the other two being both the normal Zaku and Char's red Zaku) to have multiple miniatures released during the first promotional campaign, including both a full-body sculpture and a sculpture of its bust.
Japanese stamps
The RX-78 Gundam was recognized as a culturally significant subject by the nation of Japan on October 23, 2000, with the inclusion of the suit and of the main pilot on two stamps in the 20th Century Stamp Series. [8]
Additionally, this mobile suit and other notable machines from various Gundam series were recognized in the second set of "Anime Heroes and Heroines" stamps, released in 2005. It was one of only four franchises to be given the honor; the others were Pokémon, Galaxy Express 999, and Detective Conan. [9]
Mitsubishi seminars
As part of MHI Jobcon 2005 (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Job Convention 2005), a recruiting event of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, seminars were held in six Japanese cities. The topic of these seminars was "Mobile Suit Gundam Development Story"; which indicated the requirements and processes that Mitsubishi would have to implement if the company had been required to build an RX-78 mobile suit. [10]
Gundam Evolve
The RX-78-2 Gundam has been the featured mobile suit in two of the Gundam Evolve short films. The first Evolve short "RX-78-2 Gundam" featured it in a limited capacity, instead focusing on its pilot Amuro Ray, who reminisced about the previous battles he had gone through while waiting to sortie. The second short film to feature the Gundam is the 15th installment of the Evolve series, a remake of the episode "Newtype Challia Bull" from the original series. Instead of basing the CGI models on the original line art from the series, the Gundam was completely redesigned to fit a more modernized aesthetic. The other main mobile weapons in the short — the GM, Guncannon, and Challia Bull's Braw Bro — were also redesigned to a considerable degree.
Fire Fighting Poster
The RX-78-2 Gundam & 2 Medea transport planes were featured in a fire fighting poster in Japan. The RX-78-2 was equipped with water spraying equipment instead of weapons.
Model Sales
According to Katoki Hajime commenting the poles from Newtype (magazine), as quoted in Newtype magazine serialized Seed Club 4 koma short comic series, as of 26th August, 2005, the MG RX-78-2 Gundam Ver. 1.5 ranked TOP1 in Gundam Traditional MG because it is the best valued model if one wants to buy the original Gundam; and the MG RX-78-5 Gundam G05 ranked TOP1 in Easiest to build MG since its appearance in various games and Gundam Ace magazine, a lot of people liked the unit and although the design looks like the original Gundam, it does not carry the old stinkiness(古臭) feeling and is modeled specially for new model builders, gaining it fame in an easy building model kit category.[11]
Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution
According to Gundam-san 4 koma comic, the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution appearance is influenced by the RX-78-2 Gundam.[12]
Ink and wash painting
In 2008, the Ink and wash painting of Gundam drawn by Hisashi in 2005 was sold in the Christie's auction held in Hong Kong with a price of US$600000.[13][14]
Gundam Crisis
The RX 78-2 Gundam had a full 1/1 scale mock-up constructed for the theme park attraction Gundam Crisis. It costs 800 yen to go into the attraction and the attraction is basically a game where the players have to complete about 8 different missions within 8 minutes (1 minute per mission) in order to access the cockpit. If successful, players are shown a special, Gundam related video inside the cockpit.
NOTE:
hematite jewelry/hematite earring
Diving suit
A diving suit is a garment or device designed to protect a diver from the underwater environment. Modern diving suits can be divided into two kinds:
"soft" or ambient pressure diving suits - examples are wetsuits, dry suits, semi-dry suits and dive skins
"hard" or atmospheric pressure diving suits - an armored suit that permits a diver to remain at atmospheric pressure whilst operating at depth where the water pressure is high. Main article: atmospheric diving suits.
//
Ambient pressure suits
There are five main types of ambient pressure diving suits:
wetsuits
drysuits
semi-dry suits
dive skins
hot water suits
Apart from hot water suits, these types of suit are not exclusively used by divers but are often used for thermal protection by people engaged in other water sports activities such as surfing, sailing, powerboating, windsurfing, kite surfing, waterskiing, caving and swimming.
Ambient pressure suits are a form of exposure protection protecting the wearer from the cold. They also provide some defence from abrasive and sharp objects as well as potentially harmful underwater life. They do not protect divers from the pressure of the surrounding water or resulting barotrauma and decompression sickness.
The suits are often made from Neoprene, heavy-duty fabric coated with rubber, or PVC.
Added buoyancy, created by the volume of the suit, is a side effect of diving suits. Sometimes a weightbelt must be worn to counteract this buoyancy. Some drysuits have controls allowing the suit to be inflated to reduce "squeeze" caused by increasing pressure; they also have vents allowing the excess air to be removed from the suit on ascent.
Standard diving dress, a sixth type of ambient pressure diving suit, is now obsolete but is historically interesting.
Wetsuits
Wetsuits are relatively inexpensive, simple, Neoprene suits that are typically used where the water temperature is between 10 and 25 °C (50 to 80 °F). The foamed neoprene of the suit thermally insulates the wearer.[1][2] Although water can enter the suit, a tight fitting suit prevents excessive heat loss because little of the water warmed inside the suit escapes from the suit.
Drysuits
Drysuitsare used typically where the water temperature is between -2 and 15 °C (28 to 60 °F). Water is prevented from entering the suit by seals at the neck and wrists; also, the means of getting the suit on and off (typically a zipper) is waterproof. The suit insulates the wearer in one of two main ways: by maintaining pockets of air between the body and the cold water in standard air-containing fabric undergarments beneath the suit (in exactly the way that insulation garments work in air) or via (additional) foamed-neoprene material which contains insulative air, which may be incorporated into the outside of the drysuit itself. These mechanisms work in tandem; drysuits without neoprene foam require more undergarments.
Semi-dry suits
Semi-dry suits are used typically where the water temperature is between 10 and 20 °C (50 to 70 °F). They are effectively a thick wetsuit with better-than-usual seals at wrist, neck and ankles.
The seals limit the volume of water entering and leaving the suit. The wearer gets wet in a semi-dry suit but the water that enters is soon warmed up and does not leave the suit readily, so the wearer remains warm. The trapped layer of water does not add to the suit's insulating ability. Any residual water circulation past the seals still causes heat loss. But semi-dry suits are cheap and simple compared to dry suits. They are made from thick Neoprene, which provides good thermal protection. They lose buoyancy and thermal protection as the trapped gas bubbles in the Neoprene compress at depth. Semi-dry suits can come in various configurations including a single piece or two pieces, made of 'long johns' and a separate 'jacket'. Semi dry suits do not usually include boots, so a separate pair of insulating boots are worn.
Dive skins
Dive skins are used when diving in water temperatures above 25 °C, 77 °F. They are made from Spandex and provide little thermal protection, but protect the skin from stings, abrasion and sunburn. This kind of suit is also known as a 'Stinger Suit'.
Hot water suits
Hot water suits are used in cold water commercial surface supplied diving.[6] An insulated pipe in the umbilical line, which links the diver to the surface support, carries the hot water down to the suit. The diver controls the flow rate of the water from a valve near the diver's waist. Pipes inside the suit transport the water to the limbs, front of the torso and back of the torso.
Diving suit combinations
Some divers wear a wetsuit under a membrane drysuit.
Some divers wear a thin "shorty" wetsuit under a full wetsuit.
Some divers wear a "skins" under a wetsuit. This practice started with divers (of both sexes) wearing women's body tights under a wetsuit to get a bit of extra warmth.
Some divers don't wear anything under their wetsuit.
NOTE:
"soft" or ambient pressure diving suits - examples are wetsuits, dry suits, semi-dry suits and dive skins
"hard" or atmospheric pressure diving suits - an armored suit that permits a diver to remain at atmospheric pressure whilst operating at depth where the water pressure is high. Main article: atmospheric diving suits.
//
Ambient pressure suits
There are five main types of ambient pressure diving suits:
wetsuits
drysuits
semi-dry suits
dive skins
hot water suits
Apart from hot water suits, these types of suit are not exclusively used by divers but are often used for thermal protection by people engaged in other water sports activities such as surfing, sailing, powerboating, windsurfing, kite surfing, waterskiing, caving and swimming.
Ambient pressure suits are a form of exposure protection protecting the wearer from the cold. They also provide some defence from abrasive and sharp objects as well as potentially harmful underwater life. They do not protect divers from the pressure of the surrounding water or resulting barotrauma and decompression sickness.
The suits are often made from Neoprene, heavy-duty fabric coated with rubber, or PVC.
Added buoyancy, created by the volume of the suit, is a side effect of diving suits. Sometimes a weightbelt must be worn to counteract this buoyancy. Some drysuits have controls allowing the suit to be inflated to reduce "squeeze" caused by increasing pressure; they also have vents allowing the excess air to be removed from the suit on ascent.
Standard diving dress, a sixth type of ambient pressure diving suit, is now obsolete but is historically interesting.
Wetsuits
Wetsuits are relatively inexpensive, simple, Neoprene suits that are typically used where the water temperature is between 10 and 25 °C (50 to 80 °F). The foamed neoprene of the suit thermally insulates the wearer.[1][2] Although water can enter the suit, a tight fitting suit prevents excessive heat loss because little of the water warmed inside the suit escapes from the suit.
Drysuits
Drysuitsare used typically where the water temperature is between -2 and 15 °C (28 to 60 °F). Water is prevented from entering the suit by seals at the neck and wrists; also, the means of getting the suit on and off (typically a zipper) is waterproof. The suit insulates the wearer in one of two main ways: by maintaining pockets of air between the body and the cold water in standard air-containing fabric undergarments beneath the suit (in exactly the way that insulation garments work in air) or via (additional) foamed-neoprene material which contains insulative air, which may be incorporated into the outside of the drysuit itself. These mechanisms work in tandem; drysuits without neoprene foam require more undergarments.
Semi-dry suits
Semi-dry suits are used typically where the water temperature is between 10 and 20 °C (50 to 70 °F). They are effectively a thick wetsuit with better-than-usual seals at wrist, neck and ankles.
The seals limit the volume of water entering and leaving the suit. The wearer gets wet in a semi-dry suit but the water that enters is soon warmed up and does not leave the suit readily, so the wearer remains warm. The trapped layer of water does not add to the suit's insulating ability. Any residual water circulation past the seals still causes heat loss. But semi-dry suits are cheap and simple compared to dry suits. They are made from thick Neoprene, which provides good thermal protection. They lose buoyancy and thermal protection as the trapped gas bubbles in the Neoprene compress at depth. Semi-dry suits can come in various configurations including a single piece or two pieces, made of 'long johns' and a separate 'jacket'. Semi dry suits do not usually include boots, so a separate pair of insulating boots are worn.
Dive skins
Dive skins are used when diving in water temperatures above 25 °C, 77 °F. They are made from Spandex and provide little thermal protection, but protect the skin from stings, abrasion and sunburn. This kind of suit is also known as a 'Stinger Suit'.
Hot water suits
Hot water suits are used in cold water commercial surface supplied diving.[6] An insulated pipe in the umbilical line, which links the diver to the surface support, carries the hot water down to the suit. The diver controls the flow rate of the water from a valve near the diver's waist. Pipes inside the suit transport the water to the limbs, front of the torso and back of the torso.
Diving suit combinations
Some divers wear a wetsuit under a membrane drysuit.
Some divers wear a thin "shorty" wetsuit under a full wetsuit.
Some divers wear a "skins" under a wetsuit. This practice started with divers (of both sexes) wearing women's body tights under a wetsuit to get a bit of extra warmth.
Some divers don't wear anything under their wetsuit.
NOTE:
fashion jewelry,silver earring
Space suit
Space suit from the 1969 Apollo 11 moonwalk
Space suits being used in late 2006 to work on the ISS space station
A space suit is a complex system of garments, equipment and environmental systems designed to keep a person alive and comfortable in the harsh environment of outer space. This applies to extra-vehicular activity (EVA) outside spacecraft orbiting Earth and has applied to walking, and riding the Lunar Rover, on the Moon.
Some of these requirements also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks, such as high-altitude reconnaissance flight. Above Armstrong's Line (~63,000 ft/~19,000 m), pressurized suits are needed in the sparse atmosphere. Hazmat suits that superficially resemble space suits are sometimes used when dealing with biological hazards.
//
Spacesuit requirements
A space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably. It must provide:
A stable internal pressure. This can be less than earth's atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the spacesuit to carry nitrogen. Lower pressure allows for greater mobility, but introduces the requirement of pre-breathing to avoid decompression sickness.
Mobility. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit; mobility is achieved by careful joint design. See the Theories of spacesuit design section.
Breathable oxygen. Circulation of cooled and purified oxygen is controlled by the Primary Life Support System.
Temperature regulation. Unlike on Earth, where heat can be transferred by convection to the atmosphere, in space heat can only be lost by thermal radiation or by conduction to objects in physical contact with the space suit. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and the temperature inside the suit is regulated by a Liquid Cooling Garment in contact with the astronaut's skin, as well as air temperature maintained by the Primary Life Support System.
Shielding against ultraviolet radiation
Limited shielding against particle radiation
Protection against small micrometeoroids, provided by a Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, which is the outermost layer of the suit
A communication system
Means to recharge and discharge gases and liquids
Means to maneuver, dock, release, and/or tether onto spacecraft
Means of collecting and containing solid and liquid waste (such as a Maximum Absorbency Garment)
Operating pressure
Generally, to supply enough oxygen for respiration, a spacesuit using pure oxygen must have a pressure of about 4.7 psi (32.4 kPa), equal to the 3 psi (20.7 kPa) partial pressure of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, plus 40 torr (5.3 kPa) CO2 and 47 torr (6.3 kPa) water vapor pressure, both of which must be subtracted from the alveolar pressure to get alveolar oxygen partial pressure in 100% oxygen atmospheres, by the alveolar gas equation.[1] The latter two figures add to 87 torr (11.6 kPa, 1.7 psi), which is why many modern spacesuits do not use 3 psi, but 4.7 psi (this is a slight overcorrection, as alveolar partial pressures at sea level are not a full 3 psi, but a bit less). In spacesuits that use 3 psi, the astronaut gets only 3 - 1.7 = 1.3 psi (9 kPa) of oxygen, which is about the alveolar oxygen partial pressure attained at an altitude of 6100 ft (1860 m) above sea level. This is about 78% of normal sea level pressure, about the same as pressure in a commercial passenger jet aircraft, and is the realistic lower limit for safe ordinary space suit pressurization which allows reasonable work capacity.
Theories of spacesuit design
A space suit should allow its user natural unencumbered movement. Nearly all designs try to maintain a constant volume no matter what movements the wearer makes. This is because mechanical work is needed to change the volume of a constant pressure system. If flexing a joint reduces the volume of the spacesuit, then the astronaut must do extra work every time he bends that joint, and he has to maintain a force to keep the joint bent. Even if this force is very small, it can be seriously fatiguing to constantly fight against your suit. It also makes delicate movements very difficult. The work required to bend a joint is dictated by the formula
where Vi and Vf are respectively the initial and final volume of the joint, P is the pressure in the suit, and W is the resultant work. Because pressure is dictated by life support requirements, the only means of reducing work is to minimize the change in volume.
All space suit designs try to minimize or eliminate this problem. The most common solution is to form the suit out of multiple layers. The bladder layer is a rubbery, airtight layer much like a balloon. The restraint layer goes outside the bladder, and provides a specific shape for the suit. Since the bladder layer is larger than the restraint layer, the restraint takes all of the stresses caused by the pressure inside the suit. Since the bladder is not under pressure, it will not "pop" like a balloon, even if punctured. The restraint layer is shaped in such a way that bending a joint causes pockets of fabric, called "gores", to open up on the outside of the joint, while folds called "convolutes" fold up on the inside of the joint. The gores make up for the volume lost on the inside of the joint, and keep the suit at a nearly constant volume. However, once the gores are opened all the way, the joint cannot be bent any further without a considerable amount of work.
In some Russian space suits, strips of cloth were wrapped tightly around the cosmonaut's arms and legs outside the spacesuit to stop the spacesuit from ballooning when in space.
The outermost layer of a space suit, the Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, provides thermal insulation, protection from micrometeoroids, and shielding from harmful solar radiation.
There are three theoretical approaches to suit design:
Hard-shell suits
Hard-shell suits are usually made of metal or composite materials. While they resemble suits of armor, they are also designed to maintain a constant volume. However they tend to be difficult to move, as they rely on bearings instead of bellows over the joints, and often end up in odd positions that must be manipulated to regain mobility.
Mixed suits
Mixed suits have hard-shell parts and fabric parts. NASA's Extravehicular Mobility Unit uses a fiberglass Hard Upper Torso (HUT) and fabric limbs. ILC Dover's I-Suit replaces the hard upper torso with a fabric soft upper torso to save weight, restricting the use of hard components to the joint bearings, helmet, waist seal, and rear entry hatch. Virtually all workable spacesuit designs incorporate hard components, particularly at interfaces such as is the waist seal, bearings, and in the case of rear-entry suits, the back hatch, where all-soft alternatives are not viable.
Skintight suits
Skintight suits, also known as mechanical counterpressure suits or space activity suits, are a proposed design which would use a heavy elastic body stocking to compress the body. The head is in a pressurized helmet, but the rest of the body is pressurized only by the elastic effect of the suit. This eliminates the constant volume problem, reduces the possibility of a space suit depressurization and gives a very lightweight suit. However, these suits are very difficult to put on and face problems with providing a constant pressure everywhere. Most proposals use the body's natural sweat to keep cool.
Contributing technologies
Related preceding technologies include the gas mask used in WWII, the oxygen mask used by pilots of high flying bombers in WWII, the high altitude or vacuum suit required by pilots of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird, the diving suit, rebreather, scuba diving gear, and many others.
The development of the spheroidal dome helmet was key in balancing the need for field of view, pressure compensation, and low weight. One inconvenience with some spacesuits is the head being fixed facing forwards and being unable to turn to look sideways. Astronauts call this effect "alligator head".
Chinese suit models
Shuguang EVA space suit. First generation EVA space suit developed by China for the 1967 Project 714 manned space program. Weighing about 10 kilograms, of orange colour, made of high-resistance multi-layers polyester fabric. The astronaut could use it inside the cabin and conduct EVA as well. [3][4][5]
Project 863 EVA space suit. Cancelled project of second generation Chinese EVA space suit. [6]
Shenzhou 5 space suit. The suit worn by Yang Liwei on Shenzhou 5, the first manned Chinese space flight, closely resembles a Sokol-KV2 suit, but it is believed to be a Chinese-made version rather than an actual Russian suit.
Shenzhou 6 space suit. Pictures show that the suits worn by Fei Junlong and Nie Haisheng on Shenzhou 6 differ in detail from the earlier suit, they are also reported to be lighter.
Haiying EVA space suit. The imported Russian Orlan-M EVA suit is called Haiying (海鹰号航天服).
Feitian EVA space suit (飞天号航天服). New generation indigenously developed Chinese-made EVA space suit to be used for the Shenzhou 7 mission. [7] New space suits for the extravehicular activity (舱外航天服) will be used, notably made with intelligent materials (“聪明材”).[1]. The suit is designed for a spacewalk mission of up to seven hours.[8]The astronauts had been training in the out-of-capsule space suits since July 2007, and movements are seriously restricted in the suits, with a mass of more than 110 kilograms each.[9]
Shenzhou 5 space suit
Emerging technologies
Several companies and universities are developing technologies and prototypes which represent improvements over current spacesuits.
Mark III
The Mark III is a NASA prototype, constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates a hard lower torso section and a mix of soft and hard components. The Mark III is markedly more mobile than previous suits, despite its high operating pressure (8.3 psi/57 kPa), which makes it a "zero-prebreathe" suit, meaning that astronauts would be able to transition directly from a one atmosphere, mixed-gas space station environment, such as that on the International Space Station, to the suit, without risking decompression sickness, which can occur with rapid depressurization from an atmosphere containing Nitrogen or another inert gas.
I-Suit
The I-Suit is a spacesuit prototype also constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates several design improvements over the EMU, including a weight-saving soft upper torso. Both the Mark III and the I-Suit have taken part in NASA's annual Desert Research and Technology Studies (D-RATS) field trials, during which suit occupants interact with one another, and with rovers and other equipment.
Bio-Suit
Bio-Suit is a space activity suit under development at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which as of 2006 consists of several lower leg prototypes. Bio-suit is custom fit to each wearer, using laser body scanning.
MX-2
The MX-2 is a space suit analogue constructed at the University of Maryland's Space Systems Laboratory. The MX-2 is used for manned neutral buoyancy testing at the Space Systems Lab's Neutral Buoyancy Research Facility. By approximating the work envelope of a real EVA suit, without meeting the requirements of a flight-rated suit, the MX-2 provides an inexpensive platform for EVA research, compared to using EMU suits at facilities like NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory.
The MX-2 has an operating pressure of 2.5–4 psi. It is a rear-entry suit, featuring a fiberglass hard upper torso. Air, LCG cooling water, and power are open loop systems, provided through an umbilical. The suit includes a mac mini to capture sensor data, such as suit pressure, inlet and outlet air temperatures, and heart rate.[10] Resizable suit elements and adjustable ballast allow the suit to accommodate subjects ranging in height from 68 in. to 75 in., and with a weight range of 120 lb (54 kg).[11]
North Dakota suit
Beginning in May 2006, five North Dakota schools collaborated on a new spacesuit prototype, funded by a $100,000 grant from NASA, to demonstrate technologies which could be incorporated into a planetary suit. The suit was tested in the Theodore Roosevelt National Park badlands of western North Dakota. The suit weighs 47 pounds without a life support backpack, and costs only a fraction of the standard $22,000,000[citation needed] cost for a flight-rated NASA spacesuit. The suit was developed in just over a year by students from the University of North Dakota, North Dakota State, Dickinson State, the state College of Science and Turtle Mountain Community College.[12] The mobility of the North Dakota suit can be attributed to its low operating pressure; while the North Dakota suit was field tested at a pressure of 1 psi differential, NASA's EMU suit operates at a pressure of 4.7 psi, a pressure designed to supply approximately sea-level oxygen partial pressure for respiration (see discussion above).
NASA Constellation Space Suit system
On August 2, 2006, NASA indicated plans to issue a Request for Proposal (RFP) for the design, development, certification, production, and sustaining engineering of the Constellation Space Suit to meet the needs of Project Constellation.[13] NASA foresees a single suit capable of supporting: survivability during launch, entry and abort; zero-gravity EVA; lunar surface EVA; and Mars surface EVA.
On June 11, 2008, NASA awarded a $745 million contract to Oceaneering International to create the new spacesuit. [14]
Suitports
A suitport is a theoretical alternative to an airlock, designed for use in hazardous environments and in human spaceflight, especially planetary surface exploration. In a suitport system, a rear-entry space suit is attached and sealed against the outside of a spacecraft, such that an astronaut can enter and seal up the suit, then go on EVA, without the need for an airlock or depressurizing the spacecraft cabin. Suitports require less mass and volume than airlocks, provide dust mitigation, and prevent cross-contamination of the inside and outside environments. Patents for suitport designs were filed in 1996 by Philip Culbertson Jr. of NASA's Ames Research Center and in 2003 by Joerg Boettcher, Stephen Ransom, and Frank Steinsiek.[15][16]
Spacesuits in fiction
For as long as there has been fiction set in space, authors have tried to describe or depict the space suits worn by their characters. These fictional suits vary in appearance and technology, and range from the highly authentic to the utterly improbable.
A very early fictional account of space suits can be seen in the book Edison's Conquest of Mars (1898). Later comic book series such as Buck Rogers (1930s) and Dan Dare (1950s) also featured their own takes on space suit design. Science fiction authors such as Robert A. Heinlein contributed to the development of fictional space suit concepts.
NOTE:
Space suits being used in late 2006 to work on the ISS space station
A space suit is a complex system of garments, equipment and environmental systems designed to keep a person alive and comfortable in the harsh environment of outer space. This applies to extra-vehicular activity (EVA) outside spacecraft orbiting Earth and has applied to walking, and riding the Lunar Rover, on the Moon.
Some of these requirements also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks, such as high-altitude reconnaissance flight. Above Armstrong's Line (~63,000 ft/~19,000 m), pressurized suits are needed in the sparse atmosphere. Hazmat suits that superficially resemble space suits are sometimes used when dealing with biological hazards.
//
Spacesuit requirements
A space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably. It must provide:
A stable internal pressure. This can be less than earth's atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the spacesuit to carry nitrogen. Lower pressure allows for greater mobility, but introduces the requirement of pre-breathing to avoid decompression sickness.
Mobility. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit; mobility is achieved by careful joint design. See the Theories of spacesuit design section.
Breathable oxygen. Circulation of cooled and purified oxygen is controlled by the Primary Life Support System.
Temperature regulation. Unlike on Earth, where heat can be transferred by convection to the atmosphere, in space heat can only be lost by thermal radiation or by conduction to objects in physical contact with the space suit. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and the temperature inside the suit is regulated by a Liquid Cooling Garment in contact with the astronaut's skin, as well as air temperature maintained by the Primary Life Support System.
Shielding against ultraviolet radiation
Limited shielding against particle radiation
Protection against small micrometeoroids, provided by a Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, which is the outermost layer of the suit
A communication system
Means to recharge and discharge gases and liquids
Means to maneuver, dock, release, and/or tether onto spacecraft
Means of collecting and containing solid and liquid waste (such as a Maximum Absorbency Garment)
Operating pressure
Generally, to supply enough oxygen for respiration, a spacesuit using pure oxygen must have a pressure of about 4.7 psi (32.4 kPa), equal to the 3 psi (20.7 kPa) partial pressure of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, plus 40 torr (5.3 kPa) CO2 and 47 torr (6.3 kPa) water vapor pressure, both of which must be subtracted from the alveolar pressure to get alveolar oxygen partial pressure in 100% oxygen atmospheres, by the alveolar gas equation.[1] The latter two figures add to 87 torr (11.6 kPa, 1.7 psi), which is why many modern spacesuits do not use 3 psi, but 4.7 psi (this is a slight overcorrection, as alveolar partial pressures at sea level are not a full 3 psi, but a bit less). In spacesuits that use 3 psi, the astronaut gets only 3 - 1.7 = 1.3 psi (9 kPa) of oxygen, which is about the alveolar oxygen partial pressure attained at an altitude of 6100 ft (1860 m) above sea level. This is about 78% of normal sea level pressure, about the same as pressure in a commercial passenger jet aircraft, and is the realistic lower limit for safe ordinary space suit pressurization which allows reasonable work capacity.
Theories of spacesuit design
A space suit should allow its user natural unencumbered movement. Nearly all designs try to maintain a constant volume no matter what movements the wearer makes. This is because mechanical work is needed to change the volume of a constant pressure system. If flexing a joint reduces the volume of the spacesuit, then the astronaut must do extra work every time he bends that joint, and he has to maintain a force to keep the joint bent. Even if this force is very small, it can be seriously fatiguing to constantly fight against your suit. It also makes delicate movements very difficult. The work required to bend a joint is dictated by the formula
where Vi and Vf are respectively the initial and final volume of the joint, P is the pressure in the suit, and W is the resultant work. Because pressure is dictated by life support requirements, the only means of reducing work is to minimize the change in volume.
All space suit designs try to minimize or eliminate this problem. The most common solution is to form the suit out of multiple layers. The bladder layer is a rubbery, airtight layer much like a balloon. The restraint layer goes outside the bladder, and provides a specific shape for the suit. Since the bladder layer is larger than the restraint layer, the restraint takes all of the stresses caused by the pressure inside the suit. Since the bladder is not under pressure, it will not "pop" like a balloon, even if punctured. The restraint layer is shaped in such a way that bending a joint causes pockets of fabric, called "gores", to open up on the outside of the joint, while folds called "convolutes" fold up on the inside of the joint. The gores make up for the volume lost on the inside of the joint, and keep the suit at a nearly constant volume. However, once the gores are opened all the way, the joint cannot be bent any further without a considerable amount of work.
In some Russian space suits, strips of cloth were wrapped tightly around the cosmonaut's arms and legs outside the spacesuit to stop the spacesuit from ballooning when in space.
The outermost layer of a space suit, the Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, provides thermal insulation, protection from micrometeoroids, and shielding from harmful solar radiation.
There are three theoretical approaches to suit design:
Hard-shell suits
Hard-shell suits are usually made of metal or composite materials. While they resemble suits of armor, they are also designed to maintain a constant volume. However they tend to be difficult to move, as they rely on bearings instead of bellows over the joints, and often end up in odd positions that must be manipulated to regain mobility.
Mixed suits
Mixed suits have hard-shell parts and fabric parts. NASA's Extravehicular Mobility Unit uses a fiberglass Hard Upper Torso (HUT) and fabric limbs. ILC Dover's I-Suit replaces the hard upper torso with a fabric soft upper torso to save weight, restricting the use of hard components to the joint bearings, helmet, waist seal, and rear entry hatch. Virtually all workable spacesuit designs incorporate hard components, particularly at interfaces such as is the waist seal, bearings, and in the case of rear-entry suits, the back hatch, where all-soft alternatives are not viable.
Skintight suits
Skintight suits, also known as mechanical counterpressure suits or space activity suits, are a proposed design which would use a heavy elastic body stocking to compress the body. The head is in a pressurized helmet, but the rest of the body is pressurized only by the elastic effect of the suit. This eliminates the constant volume problem, reduces the possibility of a space suit depressurization and gives a very lightweight suit. However, these suits are very difficult to put on and face problems with providing a constant pressure everywhere. Most proposals use the body's natural sweat to keep cool.
Contributing technologies
Related preceding technologies include the gas mask used in WWII, the oxygen mask used by pilots of high flying bombers in WWII, the high altitude or vacuum suit required by pilots of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird, the diving suit, rebreather, scuba diving gear, and many others.
The development of the spheroidal dome helmet was key in balancing the need for field of view, pressure compensation, and low weight. One inconvenience with some spacesuits is the head being fixed facing forwards and being unable to turn to look sideways. Astronauts call this effect "alligator head".
Chinese suit models
Shuguang EVA space suit. First generation EVA space suit developed by China for the 1967 Project 714 manned space program. Weighing about 10 kilograms, of orange colour, made of high-resistance multi-layers polyester fabric. The astronaut could use it inside the cabin and conduct EVA as well. [3][4][5]
Project 863 EVA space suit. Cancelled project of second generation Chinese EVA space suit. [6]
Shenzhou 5 space suit. The suit worn by Yang Liwei on Shenzhou 5, the first manned Chinese space flight, closely resembles a Sokol-KV2 suit, but it is believed to be a Chinese-made version rather than an actual Russian suit.
Shenzhou 6 space suit. Pictures show that the suits worn by Fei Junlong and Nie Haisheng on Shenzhou 6 differ in detail from the earlier suit, they are also reported to be lighter.
Haiying EVA space suit. The imported Russian Orlan-M EVA suit is called Haiying (海鹰号航天服).
Feitian EVA space suit (飞天号航天服). New generation indigenously developed Chinese-made EVA space suit to be used for the Shenzhou 7 mission. [7] New space suits for the extravehicular activity (舱外航天服) will be used, notably made with intelligent materials (“聪明材”).[1]. The suit is designed for a spacewalk mission of up to seven hours.[8]The astronauts had been training in the out-of-capsule space suits since July 2007, and movements are seriously restricted in the suits, with a mass of more than 110 kilograms each.[9]
Shenzhou 5 space suit
Emerging technologies
Several companies and universities are developing technologies and prototypes which represent improvements over current spacesuits.
Mark III
The Mark III is a NASA prototype, constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates a hard lower torso section and a mix of soft and hard components. The Mark III is markedly more mobile than previous suits, despite its high operating pressure (8.3 psi/57 kPa), which makes it a "zero-prebreathe" suit, meaning that astronauts would be able to transition directly from a one atmosphere, mixed-gas space station environment, such as that on the International Space Station, to the suit, without risking decompression sickness, which can occur with rapid depressurization from an atmosphere containing Nitrogen or another inert gas.
I-Suit
The I-Suit is a spacesuit prototype also constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates several design improvements over the EMU, including a weight-saving soft upper torso. Both the Mark III and the I-Suit have taken part in NASA's annual Desert Research and Technology Studies (D-RATS) field trials, during which suit occupants interact with one another, and with rovers and other equipment.
Bio-Suit
Bio-Suit is a space activity suit under development at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which as of 2006 consists of several lower leg prototypes. Bio-suit is custom fit to each wearer, using laser body scanning.
MX-2
The MX-2 is a space suit analogue constructed at the University of Maryland's Space Systems Laboratory. The MX-2 is used for manned neutral buoyancy testing at the Space Systems Lab's Neutral Buoyancy Research Facility. By approximating the work envelope of a real EVA suit, without meeting the requirements of a flight-rated suit, the MX-2 provides an inexpensive platform for EVA research, compared to using EMU suits at facilities like NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory.
The MX-2 has an operating pressure of 2.5–4 psi. It is a rear-entry suit, featuring a fiberglass hard upper torso. Air, LCG cooling water, and power are open loop systems, provided through an umbilical. The suit includes a mac mini to capture sensor data, such as suit pressure, inlet and outlet air temperatures, and heart rate.[10] Resizable suit elements and adjustable ballast allow the suit to accommodate subjects ranging in height from 68 in. to 75 in., and with a weight range of 120 lb (54 kg).[11]
North Dakota suit
Beginning in May 2006, five North Dakota schools collaborated on a new spacesuit prototype, funded by a $100,000 grant from NASA, to demonstrate technologies which could be incorporated into a planetary suit. The suit was tested in the Theodore Roosevelt National Park badlands of western North Dakota. The suit weighs 47 pounds without a life support backpack, and costs only a fraction of the standard $22,000,000[citation needed] cost for a flight-rated NASA spacesuit. The suit was developed in just over a year by students from the University of North Dakota, North Dakota State, Dickinson State, the state College of Science and Turtle Mountain Community College.[12] The mobility of the North Dakota suit can be attributed to its low operating pressure; while the North Dakota suit was field tested at a pressure of 1 psi differential, NASA's EMU suit operates at a pressure of 4.7 psi, a pressure designed to supply approximately sea-level oxygen partial pressure for respiration (see discussion above).
NASA Constellation Space Suit system
On August 2, 2006, NASA indicated plans to issue a Request for Proposal (RFP) for the design, development, certification, production, and sustaining engineering of the Constellation Space Suit to meet the needs of Project Constellation.[13] NASA foresees a single suit capable of supporting: survivability during launch, entry and abort; zero-gravity EVA; lunar surface EVA; and Mars surface EVA.
On June 11, 2008, NASA awarded a $745 million contract to Oceaneering International to create the new spacesuit. [14]
Suitports
A suitport is a theoretical alternative to an airlock, designed for use in hazardous environments and in human spaceflight, especially planetary surface exploration. In a suitport system, a rear-entry space suit is attached and sealed against the outside of a spacecraft, such that an astronaut can enter and seal up the suit, then go on EVA, without the need for an airlock or depressurizing the spacecraft cabin. Suitports require less mass and volume than airlocks, provide dust mitigation, and prevent cross-contamination of the inside and outside environments. Patents for suitport designs were filed in 1996 by Philip Culbertson Jr. of NASA's Ames Research Center and in 2003 by Joerg Boettcher, Stephen Ransom, and Frank Steinsiek.[15][16]
Spacesuits in fiction
For as long as there has been fiction set in space, authors have tried to describe or depict the space suits worn by their characters. These fictional suits vary in appearance and technology, and range from the highly authentic to the utterly improbable.
A very early fictional account of space suits can be seen in the book Edison's Conquest of Mars (1898). Later comic book series such as Buck Rogers (1930s) and Dan Dare (1950s) also featured their own takes on space suit design. Science fiction authors such as Robert A. Heinlein contributed to the development of fictional space suit concepts.
NOTE:
订阅：
博文 (Atom)